i& 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
DAVIS,  CALIFORNIA 


OUTLINES 


OF 


ENTOMOLOGY 


PREPARED  FOR  THE  USE  OF  FflRMERS  fiND  HORTICULTURISTS, 


AT  THE  REQUEST  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  THE  STATE  BOARD  OF  AGRICULTURE  AND 
THE  STATE  HORTICULTURAL  SOCIETY  OF  MISSOURI. 


BY -MARY  E.  MURTFELDT, 
KIRKWOOD,   MISSOURI. 


JEFFERSON  CITY,  MO.: 

TRIBUNE  PRINTING   COMPANY,    STATE  PRINTERS  AND   BINDERS. 
1891. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

LIBRARY 


Copyrighted  by  M.  E.  Murtfeldt. 
1891. 


PREFACE. 


In  preparing  the  following  pages,  as  an  introduction  to  the  science 
of  Entomology,  the  primary  object  has  been  to  supply  a  need  of  the 
farmer  and  horticulturist.  For  while  the  ravages  of  noxious  insects 
have  an  indirect  effect  upon  the  prosperity  and  convenience  of  every 
one,  it  is  to  the  agriculturist  more  directly  that  their  absence  or  preva- 
lence brings  financial  success  or  failure.  It  is  true  that  there  are 
already  almost  innumerable  publications,  many  of  them  of  great  value, 
on  the  subject  of  economic  entomology,  as  well  as  those  of  more  strictly 
scientific  importance,  all  of  which  are  accessible  to  any  inquirer;  but 
it  is  undeniable  that  a  lack  of  some  general  knowledge  of  the  life 
histories  of  insects,  and  an  unfamiliarity  with  many  of  the  terms  used 
in  description,  deprive  those  for  whom  they  are  prepared  of  a  large 
share  of  the  benefit  they  might  derive  from  them. 

I  do  not  ignore  the  fact  that  this  want  has  been  realized  by  many  of 
our  most  distinguished  entomologists,  and  that  several  text-books  have 
been  prepared  to  meet  it;  but  the  objective  to  these  is,  that  the  authors 
have  gone  into  the  subject  too  thoroughly,  have  dwelt  upon  points  of 
structure  that  the  business  man  has  neither  time  nor  skill  to  trace  out, 
have  discussed  phenomena  that  are  chiefly  interesting  to  the  philoso- 
pher, ar»d  which  make  the  study  seem  too  abstruse. 

The  following  pages  are  an  attempt  at  something  more  elementary, 
remembering  that  there  are  those  who  have  yet  to  learn  the  difference 
between  a  beetle  and  a  bug,  or  between  a  moth  and  a  butterfly ;  to  whom 
the  transformations  of  insects  offer  a  puzzle  which  they  cannot  solve, 
and  who  are  completely  daunted  and  discouraged  by  a  half-dozen  suc- 
cessive technical  terms.  This  little  introduction  aims  to  help  the  be- 
ginner over  some  of  the  first  difficulties  he  is  liable  to  encumber  in 
taking  up  the  subject  systematically,  and  the  author  hopes  it  will  be 
the  means  of  attracting  him  to  the  study  of  the  more  exact  and  com- 
prehensive treatises  of  Dr.  Packard,  Prof.  Comstock  and  others. 

Incomplete  and  simple  as  this  work  is,  it  is  hoped,  however,  that 
the  definitions  are  sufficiently  explicit  to  enable  the  student  to  place  all 


II 


PREFACE. 


the  more  common  insects  in  their  proper  order,  and  in  most  cases  to 
find  the  family  with  which  they  correspond  in  structure  and  habit.  So 
far  as  possible,  throughout  the  work  technical  terms  and  scientific 
names  have  been  subordinated  to  popular  ones,  although  for  the  sake  of 
precision  and  to  accustom  the  reader  to  their  use,  the  former  are  nearly 
always  given.  While  the  illustrations  are  not  so  numerous  as  could 
be  wished,  the  objects  themselves  are  so  easily  obtained  that  the 
reader  can  supply  the  deficiency  from  the  pages  of  nature,  and  it  is 
most  earnestly  recommended  that  he  will  in  all  cases  try  to  do  so. 
Insects  need  no  especial  preparation  for  study,  except  to  kill  them  with 
the  fumes  of  chloroform  or  by  immersion  in  alcohol  or  gasoline.  But- 
terflies and  moths  and  the  two-winged  flies  cannot  be  placed  in  fluids 
without  injury,  but  all  the  other  sorts  are  unharmed  by  the  process. 
A  hand  lens,  a  bit  of  cork  and  a  few  needles  and  pins  are  all  the  appli- 
ances needed  for  a  study  of  the  superficial  structure  of  the  large  or 
medium-sized  species  with  which  it  is  best  to  begin. 

If  the  writer  shall  succeed  in  introducing  this  delightful  branch  of 
natural  history  to  even  a  few  of  those  who  are  surrounded  by  the  beau* 
ful  and  interesting  objects  discussed,  and  if  in  these  pages  the  victim 
of  insect  depredations  obtains  a  few  hints  concerning  the  vulnerable 
stages  in  the  lives  of  his  tiny  but  collectively  potent  foes,  the  work  will 
not  have  been  done  in  vain. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  acknowledge  my  great  indebtedness  to  the 
works  of  Dr.  0.  V.  Eiley,  U.  S.  Entomologist,  Dr.  A.  S.  Packard,  whose 
"  Guide  "  and  Entomology  for  Beginners  "  are  so  admirably  adapted  to 
the  use  of  those  desiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  in- 
sect forms,  and  to  Prof.  Comstock's  more  technical  and  elaborate  "  Intro- 
duction." 

Among  other  authors  from  whose  works  I  have  obtained  much  as- 
sistance are  Professors  Fernald,  Cook,  French,  Osborne,  the  Eev.  Dr. 
McCook,  Messrs.  Howard,  Henshaw  and  Saunders. 

The  illustrations  used  are  mostly  from  electrotypes  purchased  from 
Dr.  C.  V.  Eiley,  and  from  drawings  done  by  Mr.  Joseph  Bridgham,  of 
Providence,  E.  I.,  who  also  supervised  the  heliotyping  of  the  same. 
Fig.  32  was  engraved  by  the  Gast  Bank  Note  Lithographing  company 
of  St.  Louis,  and  Fig.  44  is  from  an  electrotype  presented  by  the  Eural 
World. 

MARY  E.  MURTFELDT. 
Kirkwood,  Missouri. 


OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


GENERAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 

Illustrated  by  electrotypes  from  drawings  by  Prof.  C   V.  Riley,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  zin& 
process  work  done  under  the  supervision  of  Mr.  Joseph  Bridgham,  of  Providence,  R.  I. 


CHAPTER  1. 
INTRODUCTION. 

What  is  an  insect  ?  This  does  not  seem  like  a  question  difficult  to 
answer,  and  yet  how  few  either  of  grown  persons  or  children  would  be 
able  to  define  an  insect  otherwise  than  as  "  some  sort  of  a  bug."  Now 
it  is  true  that  all  bugs,  properly  so  called,  are  insects;  but  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  all  insects  are  bugs.  On  the  contrary,  genuine  bug& 
form  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  fluttering,  buzzing,  crawling  myriads 
to  which  the  term  is  generally  applied. 

Insects  are  among  the  most  familiar  of  natural  objects.  They  are 
met  with  in  all  climates  and  situations,  and  in  greater  or  less  numbers 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  They  claim  our  attention  in  a  thousand 
different  ways.  We  admire  the  beauty  of  form  and  color  in  some,  and 
shrink  from  the  grotesque  ugliness  of  others.  Many  species  injure 
and  annoy  us  personally  or  damage  or  destroy  our  property,  while  on 
the  other  hand  a  few,  like  the  honey-bee,  the  silk- worm  and  the  cochi- 
neal insect,  produce  some  of  our  choicest  luxuries.  Is  it  not  well  then 
for  us  to  endeavor  to  learn  something  of  the  structure,  habits  and  dif- 
ferences of  a  class  of  animals  with  which  we  unavoidably  have  so  much 
to  do? 

How  few  people  realize  that  there  are  as  wide  differences  between 
insects  and  some  of  the  animals  that  are  usually  classed  with  them — 
for  example,  spiders,  millepeds  and  earth-worms — as  there  are  between 
cows  and  chickens  and  serpents;  and  there  are  far  greater  distinctions 
between  butterflies  and  beetles  and  grasshoppers  than  exist  between 


4  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

horses,  cows  and  sheep.  This  may  seem  strange  to  one  who  has  given 
the  subject  no  attention,  but  a  little  careful  observation  will  convince 
him  of  its  truth. 

It  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  definite  idea  of  the  structure  of  insectsr 
and  their  place  in  the  scale  of  being,  without  comparing  them  critically 
with  other  kinds  of  animals  and  noting  the  points  in  which  they  differ. 
To  obtain  this  knowledge  without  the  aid  of  books  would  involve  a 
wide  field  of  observation  and  a  great  deal  of  labor  in  systematizing 
the  information  gained.  Therefore,  to-  aid  and  direct  the  observations 
of  the  student,  we  will  glance  hastily  over  the  outlines  of  the  classifi- 
cation of  the  animal  kingdom  as  arranged  by  the  great  French  natural- 
ist, Cuvier,  after  whom  it  is  called  the  "Cuvierian  system."  According 
to  this  system  all  the  animals,  on  or  in  the  earth,  monstrous  or  minute, 
are  arranged  in  ihefour  following  Sub-kingdoms  : 

I.  BACKBONE  animals  (Sub-kingdom  VERTEBRA),  such  as  have  an 
internal  bony  frame  termed  a  skeleton,  the  axis  of  which  is  a  spinal 
column  composed  of  a  number  of  peculiar  joints  called  vertebrae.    Ex- 
amples— Man,  Birds,  Fishes  and  Reptiles. 

II.  RINGED  or  ARTICULATE  animals  (Sub-kingdom  A.RTICULATA), 
having  an  external  tough  or  horny  framework  composed  of  rings  or 
articulations  enclosing  the  muscles  and  other  soft  tissues.    Examples — 
Insects,  Spiders,  Millepeds,  Crabs. 

III.  MOLLUSKS  (Sub-kingdom   MOLLUSCA),  soft-bodied   animals 
usually  enclosed  in  shells.    Examples — Snails,  Slugs,  Oysters. 

IV.  STAR  or  RADIATE  animals  (Sub-kingdom  RADIATA).    These 
are  formed  somewhat  upon  the  plan  of  a  star  or  asterisk,  with  all  the 
members  branching  out  from  a  common  center.     Examples — Star-fish,. 
Sea  Urchin,  Coral  animal.    This  division  includes  mostly  marine  ani- 
mals. 

Each  of  these  Sub-kingdoms  is  divided  into  several  very  distinct 
classes.  Passing  over  the  classes  of  BACKBONE  animals,  we  will  con- 
fine our  attention  to  the  ARTICULATA,  in  which  insects,  although  by  no 
means  the  largest  representatives,  occupy,  on  account  of  their  more 
specialized  structure,  the  highest  rank.  The  classes  of  ARTICULATA 
are  five  in  number,  viz.:*  Insects  (Insecta),  Thousand-legged  worms 
or  Millepeds  (MyriapodaJ,  Spiders  (ArachnidaJ,  Lobsters  and  Crabs 
(Crustacea),  and  True  Worms  (Annelida). 

*  According  to  Cuvier,  whose  plans  will  answer  our  present  purpose. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  5 

For  convenience  this  classification  may  be  tabulated  thus : 

f  Vertebra.  flnsecta. 

I  Articulata 1  Myriapoda. 

Animal  Kingdom.  -{  -{  Arachnida. 

I  Mollusca.  Crustacea. 

[Radiata.  [Annelida. 

In  proceeding  to  separate  true  insects  from  the  other  members  of 
their  sub-kingdom,  the  most  obvious  distinction  is  that  they  alone 
-among  articulates  ever  possess  wings.  There  are,  however,  some  in- 
sects, mostly  of  the  worst  repute,  such  as  fleas,  bed-bugs,  lice  and  a 
few  others,  that  never  acquire  wings.  We  have,  therefore,  to  seek  in 
.some  other  organ,  or  set  of  organs,  a  characteristic  by  which  we  can 
distinguish  any  insect  from  other  articulates,  and  one  which  will,  if 
possible,  have  a  peculiar  development  in  each  of  the  classes.  Such  a 
distinction  is  found  in  the  number  of  the  legs.  Thus  insects,  in  their 
perfect  or  adult  state,  always  have  six  legs,  neither  more  nor  less — 
although  in  some  butterflies  the  front  pair  of  legs,  not  being  used,  are 
of  diminished  size,  and  are  tucked  up  out  of  the  way.  Millepeds,  as 
the  name  denotes,  have  numerous  legs,  from  thirty  to  four  hundred ; 
spiders  and  mites  have  eight  legs  ;  crustaceans  from  ten  to  fourteen  legs, 
while  the  true  worms  have  no  legs  at  all  in  any  stage  of  their  existence. 
We  have,  therefore,  only  to  count  the  legs  of  an  articulate  animal  to 
find  out  in  which  of  the  preceding  classes  it  belongs.* 

The  term  "insect,"  which  is  derived  from  two  Latin  words,  in  and 
seco — cut  into — in  reference  to  the  ring-jointed  or  insected  body,  was, 
by  some  of  the  earlier  writers  on  natural  history,  applied  to  the  entire 
.group  of  the  articulates,  and  the  various  classes  were  distinguished  as 
•"  six-legged  insects,"  '*  eight-legged  insects,"  4<  many-legged  insects," 
and  so  forth.  But  as  the  structure  of  these  animals  was  more  thor- 
oughly studied,  they  were  found  to  be  more  widely  separated  than  was 
at  first  supposed.  The  term  "  insect "  was  restricted  to  the  six-legged 
class,  and  other  names,  more  suitable,  applied  to  the  remaining  classes. 
Insects  are  further  distinguished  from  other  articulates  in  having  the 
external  framework  composed  apparently  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  rings 
or  joints,  which  are  separated  into  three  regions,  the  first  joint  forming 
the  headj-ihe  succeeding  three  the  thorax,  and  the  remaining  nine  or 
ten  the  abdomen  and  its  appendages. 

In  the  inillepeds  the  number  of  rings  varies  from  ten  to  two  hun- 
dred, and  the  head  alone  is  distinct  from  the  abdomen.  In  the  spiders 
the  joints  are  so  closely  consolidated  that  two  only  can  be  perceived, 
the  first  forming  the  combined  head  and  thorax  (cephalo  thorax}  and 
the  second  the  abdomen.  In  the  crustaceans  the  number  of  joints  is 

*Except  in  the  case  of  the  young  of  some  Mites,  which  also  have  only  six  legs. 


6  OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

variable,  and  in  some  species  the  division  is  into  three  regions,  as  in» 
insects,  while  others  bear  some  resemblance  to  spiders  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  joints.  In  the  framework  of  the  worms  we  find  numerous, 
joints,  but  no  distinct  head,  thorax  or  hind  body. 

Another  and  very  interesting  peculiarity  of  insects  is  found  in 
their  transformations  or  metamorphoses.  Insect  life  begins  with  an 
embryo  contained  in  an  egg.  From  this  egg  hatches  the  first  active 
form,  which  is  called  a  larva  (plural  larva),  the  term  signifying  a  mask, 
because  the  true  form  of  the  insect  is  considered  to  be  masked  or  con- 
cealed at  this  stage  of  life.  All  caterpillars,  grubs  and  maggots  are 
larvse.  When  the  larva  is  full  grown  it  changes,  in  most  cases,  to  a 
very  different  object,  and  is  then  termed  a  pupa  (plural  pupce),  from  a 
word  meaning  a  doll  or  mummy,  in  reference  to  its  quiescence  and  the 
swathed  or  bandaged  appearance  of  its  members.  From  the  pupa  in 
due  time  emerges  the  perfect  insect  or  imago  (plural  imagines],  which  is 
the  final  form  and  the  one  in  which  it  possesses  wings,  unless  it  be- 
longs to  the  few  wingless  species. 

The  chief  office  of  the  perfect  insect  is  to  develop  and  lay  the- 
eggs  from  which  another  generation  of  larvae  will  hatch,  and,  in  the 
case  of  some  species,  to  provide  food  for  their  young. 

To  britiy  recapitulate,  in  answer  to  our  opening  question:  An 
insect  is  an  articulate  animal  having  the  external  skeleton  composed  of 
a  number  of  rings  or  joints,  which  are  separated  into  three  groups  to- 
form  a  distinct  head,  thorax  and  abdomen.  It  has  six  legs,  and,  in  its. 
perfect  state,  has  two  or  four  wings,  and  is  further  characterized  by 
changes  of  form  and  habit  called  metamorphoses. 

The  science  which  treats  of  the  structure,  habits  and  classification 
of  insects  is  called  Entomology,  a  term  composed  of  two  Greek  words 
which  signify  a  "  discourse  on  insects." 

Economic  Entomology  has  for  its  object  the  investigation  of  the 
habits  of  injurious  insects,  with  a  view  to  the  better  preservation  of 
our  persons  and  property  from  their  attacks.  It  also  includes  experi- 
ments with  such  species  as  are  or  may  prove  to  be  valuable  for  their 
products  or  properties,  and  endeavors  to  ascertain  which  are  indirectly 
useful  to  man  on  account  of  their  parasitic  and  cannibalistic  habits. 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  II. 
EXTERNAL   STRUCTURE   OF  INSECTS. 

In  our  introductory  chapter  were 
noted  some  of  the  differences  between 
insects  and  vertebrate  animals,  and  alsoi 
between  insects  and  other  articulates. 
Now  in  order  to  comprehend  these  dis- 
tinctions still  more  clearly,  and  to  under- 
stand how  the  various  parts  and  organs 
are  modified  to  produce  the  almost 
innumerable  diverse  forms,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  examine  the  general  struc- 
ture still  more  critically. 

The  external  crust  or  skeleton  of  an 
insect  forms  a  many-jointed  tube  in  which,  as  has  already  been  men- 
tioned, are  enclosed  and  protected  all  the  softer  vital  parts,  such  as 
the  muscles,  nerves,  the  air  and  blood  vessels,  etc.  The  most  common 
form  of  this  tube  is  more  or  less  cylindrical,  but  in  some  insects  it  is 
shortened  and  flattened  so  that  the  outline  is  oblong,  oval  or  nearly- 
circular.  This  body-wall  is  composed  of  fourteen  ring-like  sections  or 
segments  which  are  more  or  less  closely  connected.  Of  these  joints 
the  first,  forming  the  head,*  is  most  distinct.  The  three  joints  forming 
the  thorax  have  the  appearance  of  being  firmly  soldered  together,  and 
it  is  often  difficult  to  trace  the  divisions.  In  the  abdominal  region,  on 
the  contrary,  the  rings  are  loosely  connected  by  a  flexible  and  elastic 
membrane,  which  allows  them  to  move  freely  in  any  direction.  Two 
or  three  of  the  terminal  joints  of  the  abdomen  are  changed  from  their 
original  shape  to  form  and  support  stings,  piercers,  forceps,  and  the 
like,  so  that  we  are  seldom  able  to  distinguish  more  than  six  or  seven 
distinct  rings  in  this  part  of  the  body. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  fourteen  joints  are  the  only  divi- 
sions of  the  insect  skeleton.  If  this  were  the  case  we  should  never  have 
occasion  to  admire  the  grace  of  the  butterfly's  flight  or  the  surprising 
agility  of  various  beetles  and  bugs.  The  fact  is  that  each  joint,  although 
it  may  appear  like  a  simple  ring,  is  composed  of  from  six  to  nine  vari- 
ously shaped  pieces,  each  piece,  however  closely  fitted  to  the  others,, 
being  capable  of  independent  motion  by  the  muscles  within.  Otherwise 
an  insect  would  never  be  able  to  move  a  wing  or  leg  or  other  organ, 
*  Dr.  Packard  considers  the  head  as  composed  of  four  joints. 


8  OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

separately.  On  the  thorax  of  manj  smooth,  hard-shelled  insects,  like 
wasps  and  beetles,  we  can  readily  trace  the  divisions  of  each  joint  by 
means  of  fine  impressed  lines. 

The  insect  crust  varies  greatly  in  texture  and  thickness.  In  some 
insects,  and  especially  in  many  larvae,  it  is  very  thin,  easily  bent  and 
easily  broken;  in  others  it  is  hard  and  brittle  like  shell,  or  dense  and 
impenetrable  like  metal.  Examples  of  the  shelly  texture  are  found  in 
the  pupae— termed  chrysalides —of  butterflies  and  moths,  while  the 
metal-like  covering  may  be  seen  in  the  cases  of  the  beautiful  Brazilian 
beetles,  often  used  by  jewelers  in  the  place  of  gems,  which  are  so 
hard  that  they  can  only  be  pierced  by  a  drill. 

The  majority  of  insects  have  the  head  separated  from  the  thorax 
«nd  the  thorax  from  the  abdomen  by  deep  incisions,  or  the  contraction 
of  the  connecting  joints.  This  will  be  understood  by  a  glance  at  the 
illustration  at  the  head  of  this  chapter,  or  better  still  by  examining  the 
body  of  a  bee,  a  butterfly  or  a  fly. 

The  back  or  upper  surface  of  the  body  of  an  insect  is  termed  the 
dorsum  or  dorsal  surface,  or  tergum,  the  sides  the  pleurites  or  lateral 
surfaces,  while  the  under  side  is  the  venter  or  ventral  surface.  The  top 
of  the  thorax  is  sometimes  further  distinguished  as  the  notum,  the 
under  side,  or  breast,  being  correspondingly  termed  the  sternum. 

In  exact  scientific  description  a  number  of  other  terms  are  used 
to  indicate  the  various  divisions  of  a  segment,  or  to  refer  to  precise 
localities  on  the  body,  but  these  are  not  necessary  to  a  general  appre- 
hension of  the  structure,  and  would  only  confuse  and  discourage  a 
beginner. 


CHAPTER  III.      • 

THE   HEAD  AND   ITS  APPENDAGES. 

As  with  the  higher  animals,  the  head  of  an  insect 
is  more  especially  the  sensorial  region,  because  it 
•contains  the  organs  of  sight,  touch,  taste,  smell,  and 
possibly  in  some  species,  of  hearing  also.  The  sense 
of  feeling  is  not,  of  course,  confined  to  the  append- 
ages used  by  the  insect  for  touching  objects— which 
in  this  sense  correspond  to  the  human  hand— but  ex- 
tends over  the  entire  surface  of  the  bodv  Head  of  WasP:  °.  °c- 

J  ciput;  6,  epicranium;  c, 

Certain  localities  on  the  head  are  frequently  re.  ^c^/'comPOTlndeye8; 
ferred  to  in  descriptions  of  insects.    The  more  important  of  these  are : 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  9 

the  Occiput,  which  is  the  back  upper  part  (Fig.  2,  a) ;  the  epicranium, 
the  front  upper  part  (Fig.  2,  bj,  and  the  Clypeus,  which  occupies  the 
space  between  the  epicranium  and  the  mouth.  The  top  of  the  head  is 
also  sometimes  called  the  Vertex;  the  front,  the  face  or  From;  the 
sides,  the  cheeks  or  Gence.  The  manner  in  which  these  parts  are  devel- 
oped varies  greatly  in  different  insects. 

The  principal  appendages  or  organs  of  the  head  are  the  Mouth,  the 
Eyes  and  the  Antennce. 

The  mouth  presents  a  variety  of  forms,  being  adapted  in  different 
insects  to  the  kind  of  food  upon  which  they  subsist,  and  also  to  the 
various  offices,  besides  those  of  mastication  or  suction,  which  are  per- 
formed by  it. 

All  the  variations  in  structure,  however  seemingly  diverse,  are 
made  upon  two  plans,  viz.:  jaws  for  biting  and  beaks  or  tubes  for 
sucking. 

The  mouth  of  a  biting  insect  consists  of  six  dis- 
tinct parts,  collectively  called  Trophi.  These  parts 
are  the  lips — upper  and  under— and  two  pairs  of 
strong,  horny  organs  which  form  the  jaws  and  move 
from  side  to  side  and  not  up  and  down  like  the  jaws 
of  the  higher  animals.  The  upper  lip  is  called  the 
Labrum  (Fig.  3,  c),  and  the  under  lip  (not  shown  in 

the  illustration),  the  Labium.     These  parts  are  sub- 
Head  of  Tigec  beetle:  a,   .  , 

firons;  6,  epistoma;    c,  iect  to  great  changes  in  shape,  and  seldom  bear  much 

labrum;  d,  eyes:  e,  man- 
dibles;   /,  maxiij«e;    g,  resemblance  to  the  lips  of  Vertebrates.     The  upper 

maxillary  palpi;  h,  labial 

palpi;  i,  antennae.  or  principal  jaws  are  termed  Mandibles  (Fig.  3,  eej. 

They  are  strong  and  sharply  toothed,  and  are  the  chief  instruments  for 
seizing  and  tearing  the  food. 

The  lower  jaws  (Fig.  3,ffJ  are  called  the  Maxillce  (sing,  maxilla), 
and  are  usually  more  slender  and  flexible  than  the  mandibles  and  ter- 
minate in  a  point. 

Besides  these  six  principal  mouth  parts,  most  insects  have  from 
one  to  three,  generally  two  pairs  of  slender-jointed  organs,  called  Palpi 
(sing,  palpus)  or  mouth- feelers.  One  pair  is  attached  to  the  lower  jaws, 
and  are  termed  the  maxillary  palpi  (Fig.  3,  g),  the  other  pair,  connected 
with  the  lower  lip,  are  the  labial  palpi  (Fig.  3,  h).  Their  office  seems  to 
be  to  aid  in  the  selection  of  food  and  to  brush  impurities  from  the  face 
and  antennae. 

The  sucking  or  haustellate  insects  have  the  same  number  of  mouth 
parts,  but  they  are  developed  on  an  entirely  different  plan.  In  some 
species,  such  as  the  true  Bugs,  most  of  the  parts  are  united  to  form  a 
stiff,  jointed  beak,  with  which  the  leaves  of  plants  or  the  skins  of  ani- 


10  OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

inals  are  punctured  and  the  juices  or  blood  extracted.  In  others,  like 
the  Butterflies  and  Moths,  the  combined  parts  form  a  long,  flexible 
tube,  usually  called  a  tongue,  through  which  the  nectar  of  flowers  and 
similar  fluids  may  be  drawn.  In  others  still,  the  lower  lip  and  the 
maxill®  together  form  a  sort  of  tongue  for  collecting  sweets,  while  the 
mandibles  are  not  altered.  Bees  and  Wasps  have  this  kind  of  mouth. 

The  organs  of  vision  are  situated  upon  the  epicranium  in  front  or 
near  the  top  of  the  head. 

They  consist  of  a  pair  of  prominent  compound  eyes  (see  Figs.  2 
and  3,  M),  composed  of  a  great  number  of  six-sided  lenses.  In  shape 
these  compound  eyes  are  round,  oblong  or  reniform  (kidney-shaped). 
In  addition  to  these,  many  insects  are  provided  with  three  small  single 
eyes,  called  ocelli  (sing,  ocellus},  situated  upon  or  near  the  apex  of  the 
head,  in  a  triangle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  c. 

All  these  eyes  are  fixed  in  their  sockets,  but  protrude  so  much 
that  some  of  the  lenses  face  in  each  direction,  and  the  insect  has  no 
need  to  turn  its  eyes  to  obtain  warning  of  approaching  danger,  or  in 
its  search  for  food.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  compound  eyes- 
serve  the  ordinary  purposes  of  vision,  while  the  ocelli  are  used  upon 
objects  that  are  near  and  minute ;  but  this  is  mere  conjecture.  Some  of 
the  best  observers  and  most  careful  investigators  assert  that  with  all  the 
provision  that  has  apparently  been  made  for  sight  in  insects  their  vision 
would  seem  to  be  very  imperfect,  especially  for  objects  at  a  distance. 

Black  and  brown  are  the  colors  most  commonly  seen  in  the  eyes  of 
insects,  but  many  species  have  eyes  that  gleam  with  the  tints  and  bril- 
liancy of  jewels,  and  add  not  a  little  to  the  beauty  of  the  species. 

The  most  striking  appendages  of  the  head  of  an  insect  are  the 
Feelers  or  Antennae  (sing,  antenna ).  These  are  many-jointed  organs  in 
which  the  sense  of  touch  is  thought  chiefly  to  reside.  Many  experiments 
go  to  show  that  they  are  also  the  organs  of  smell.  They  are  of  a  great 
variety  of  forms,  a  few  of  which  are  represented  in  Fig.  4.  The  differ- 
ent shapes  are  distinguished  as  knobbed,  capitate,  laminate,  pectinate? 
filiform,  etc.  They  are  usually  attached  a  little  below  and  between 
the  eyes,  as  shown  in  figures  2  and  3. 

A  knowledge  of  the  form  and  position  of  the  antennae  is  very  im- 
portant in  the  classification  of  insects,  especially  in  such  orders  as  the 
Coleoptera  (beetles). 

All  the  functions  of  the  antennas  are  probably  not  yet  known ;  but 
it  has  been  ascertained  that  besides  serving  the  purposes  already  men- 
tioned, they  are  also  indispensable  in  guiding  the  flight  of  all  winged 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


11 


species,  and  are,  to  a  large  extent,  the  in- 
struments of  communication  between  in- 
dividuals of  the  same  kind,  as  among  ants, 
and  no  doubt  aid  the  perception  of  in- 
sects in  many  ways  that  are  beyond  our 
comprehension. 

The  sense  of  hearing  in  insects  is  not 
considered  to  be  as  generally  developed 
as  in  the  higher  animals.  Yet  unques- 
tionably many  insects  do  hear,  although 
the  special  organs  of  this  sense  have  been 
located  in  comparatively  few  species. 
Such  ears  as  have  been  discovered  are 
not  found  on  the  head,  but  on  the  front 
legs  and  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen, 
ant.  of  beetle;  7,  bristle  tipped  ant.  of  These  will  be  more  particularly  described 

fly:   8,  knobbed    ant.    of  butterfly;    9, 

feathered  ant.  of  moth.  jn  a  succeeding  chapter. 


Antennae  of  insects,  adapted  from 
trathors.  1  and  3,  lamellate  ant.  of 
beetle;  2,  capitate  ant.  of  beetle;  4, 
pectinate  ant.  of  beetle:  5  and  6,  filiform 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE   THORAX    AND    ABDOMEN. 

The  three  segments  immediately  back  of  the  head  constitute  the 
Thorax  or  chest  of  an  insect.  This  division  of  the  body  is  very  com- 
pact and  usually  somewhat  globular,  or  barrel-shaped.  Each  of  the  seg- 
ments or  joints  composing  it  has  received  a  special  name;  the  anterior 
one — next  the  head — is  termed  the  Prothorax;  the  middle  one,  the 
Mesothorax,  and  the  third  or  posterior  one  the  Metathorax.  Each  of 
these  divisions,  though  apparently  entire,  is  in  reality,  as  has  already 
been  observed,  made  up  of  several  irregularly  shaped  pieces,  which  are 
connected  in  such  a  way  as  to  afford  free  play  to  the  strong  muscles 
within. 

The  appendages  of  the  thorax  are  the  wings  and  legs.  The  wings 
of  insects  are  their  most  conspicuous  members,  upon  which  the  beauty 
and,  in  a  great  measure,  the  safety  and  enjoyment  of  most  species  de- 
pend. 

In  their  adult  and  perfect  state  nearly  all  insects  possess  these 
organs,  the  only  exceptions  being  the  members  of  a  few  small  groups, 
such  as  fleas,  bed-bugs,  lice,  some  of  the  ants,  and  the  females  of  a  few 
moths  and  beetles. 


12 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 


Tig  5. 


A. 


In  their  general  structure  the  wings  of  insects  show  a  number  of 
very  distinct  plans  or  types,  which  have  been  made  the  basis  for  the 
system  of  classification  commonly  adopted. 

The  wings  are  attached  to  the  mesothorax  and  metathorax,  and 
where  present  are  always  four  in  number,  except  in  the  order  of  the 
two-winged  flies  (Diptera),  where  only  the  upper  pair  are  fully  devel- 
oped, the  lower  pair  being  represented  by  little  hammer-like  organs, 

called  Halter es  or  Poisers. 

Wings  are  composed  of  membrane,  more 

or  less  transparent,  stretched  over  a  frame- 
work of  horny  tubes,  termed  veins  or 
nerves.  The  number  and  arrangement  of 
these  tubes  constitute  the  Venation  orNeu- 
ration  of  the  wings,  to  which  frequent  refer- 
ence is  made  in  descriptions  of  insects^ 
There  are  usually  from  three  to  five  princi- 
pal veins  in  each  wing.  These  branch  and 
intersect  very  differently  in  the  types  of 
different  families.  The  spaces  between  the 
veins  are  called  cells,  which  are  also  named 
and  numbered  in  regular  order.* 

The  first  or  upper  wings  are  variously 
designated  as  the  Anteriors,  the  Superiors 
A,  i  and  ii,  upper  and  under  wings  °r  the  Primaries,  while  to  the  lower  or  un- 
oi  iSJ'SKtaiSSr.ShS?"      *  ^  pair  are  applied  the  opposite  terms  of 
Posteriors  or  Secondaries.     Many  of  the  best  writers  use  the  simple 
terms  of  fore  and  hind  wings. 

These  organs  exhibit  an  almost  endless  variety  of  outline,  texture 
and  ornamentation.  The  wings  of  butterflies  and  moths,  for  example, 
are  broad  and  of  rather  frail  texture,  and  are  covered  with  minute 
scales  and  hairs  of  rich  and  varied  colors.  The  upper  wings  of  beetles 

*  The  outline  and  veination  of  the  wings  of  insects  are  made  great  use  of  in  classi- 
fication, and  for  the  convenience  of  any  that  may  be  interested,  I  append  the  term& 
applied  to  margins,  veins  and  cells  as  follows :  On  the  wing  of  an  insect  the  upper 
edge,  from  where  it  is  joined  to  the  body  to  the  most  distant  point,  is  the  costa  or 
costal  edge.  The  extreme  point  is  the  apex.  (In  the  figure  A,  just  above  Z>4.)  The 
outer  edge  extends  from  the  apex  to  the  inner  angle  at  d4,  and  the  inner  edge  from 
this  point  to  the  insertion  of  the  wing.  The  veins  are  the  costal  vein,  just  below 
a;  6,  sub-costal  vein  ;  d,  median  vein;  J1,  62,  bs.  64  and  b5,  sub-costal  veinlets ;  d1, 
d2,  d3  and  d4,  median  veinlets ;  e,  internal  vein  ;  /,  discal  cell .  The  other  cells  bear 
the  names  of  the  veins  which  enclose  them  and  are  numbered  from  the  costal  vein. 
In,  B  a  is  the  costal  vein ;  1,  2,  3,  costal  cells  ;  4,  5,  6,  sub-costal  cells ;  7,  8,  9,  median 
cells  ;  10, 11,  12,  sub-median  cells ;  13,  internal  cell.  The  veins  and  cells  in  the  under 
wings  correspond  to  the  principal  ones  in  the  upper. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 


13 


are  comparatively  small,  being  modified  into  simple  sheaths,  often  of 
metallic  hardness  and  luster,  beneath  which  the  longer  and  broader 
membraneous  lower  wings  are  compactly  folded,  except  during  night. 
In  the  majority  of  other  insects  the  wings  are  translucent  or  transpar- 
ent, more  closely  veined,  and  not  clothed  with  scales  or  hairs.  The 
other  organs  of  locomotion  are  the  legs.  In  fully  developed  insects 
these  are  invariably  six  in  number.  Some  of  our  most  conspicuous  but- 
terflies, it  is  true,  seem  to  have  but  four,  but  the  absence  of  the  front 
pair  is  only  apparent,  and  close  examination  will  reveal  them  folded 
close  against  the  breast  and  perfectly  formed,  though  small  and  use- 
less. The  legs  of  insects  are  modified  in  many  ways  to  adapt  them  for 
running,  leaping,  burrowing  and  swimming,  according  to  the  habit  of 
the  species.  Each  leg  consists  of  six  parts :  a  large  flattened  joint 
called  the  coxa,  which  is  attached  to  the  body  ;  this  is  succeeded  by  a 
joint  which  is  very  variable  in  form,  usually  small,  but  in  some  species 
large,  and  having  the  appearance  of  an  ornamental  appendage,  and  is 
termed  the  trocanter  ( plural  trocanters);  next  to  this  is  a  long  and 
often  very  stout  thigh  or  femur  (plural  femora ),  succeeded  by  the  shank 
or  tibia  (plural  tlbce),  to  which  is  attached  the  foot  or  tarsus  (plural 
tarsi),  consisting  of  from  two  to  five  small  joints,  and  in  many  species 
terminating  in  a  pair  of  sharp  claws,  sometimes  with  a  pad-like  cush- 
ion, termed  a  pulvillus,  between  them. 

The  abdomen  in  insects  is  composed 
of  ten  remaining  segments.  In  most 
species,  however,  the  hindermost 
rings  are  modified  into  the  apparatus 
for  reproduction  and  are  drawn  more 
or  less  within  the  body,  so  that  only 
from  five  to  seven  joints  can  be  clear- 
ly distinguished.  It  is  in  this  part  of 
the  body  that  the  form  of  the  typi- 
cal ring  can  be  traced  with  greater 
accuracy  than  in  any  other  region,  as 
Legs,  original  and  adapted;  A,  leg  of  preda-  ^  segments  are  not  apparently  con- 

ceous  beetle;  a,  coxa;  &,  trochanter;   c,  femur; 

d,  tibia:   e,  tarsus;  /.  tareal  claws;  g,  tibial  solidated    as    ill    the    thorax,  but   are 

K&fitt«?£5&'% held  tosether  4»ite  loose'y with  e]as- 

ted  for  burrowing  in  the  earth :  a,  femur;  b,  tibia ;  ||^  membrane. 

c,  tarsus;   D,  leg  of  watrr  beetle  adapted  to 

swimming. 

Along  each  side  of  the  body  is  a  row  of  more  or  less  conspicuous 
orifices.  These  are  the  openings  through  which  the  insect  breathes, 
and  are  termed  stomata  or  stigmata  or  spiracles.  They  conduct  to  air- 
tubes,  to  which  more  particular  reference  will  be  made  in  a  succeeding 


14  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

chapter.     There  are  nine  or  ten,  sometimes  eleven  pairs  of  them,  two 
on  the  thorax  and  the  others  on  the  abdomen. 

The  only  appendages  of  the  abdomen  are  the  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion, which,  in  some  species,  as  the  bee  and  the  wasp,  are  connected 
with  those  of  defense,  in  the  form  of  stings.  They  consist,  externally, 
of  various  sorts  of  forceps  or  claspers  in  the  male,  and  of  saws,  augers, 
swords,  and  more  commonly,  piercers  and  stings  in  the  female.  All  of 
these  instruments  are  very  ingenious  in  their  construction  and  admi- 
rably adopted  to  the  work  for  which  they  are  designed.  They  will  be 
described  in  detail  when  the  species  to  which  they  pertain  are  under 
consideration. 


CHAPTER  V. 

INTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 

The  internal  structure  of  insects  consists  of  the  Muscular,  Nervous 
tind  Circulatory  systems,  together  with  the  organs  of  Respiration,  Nutri- 
tion and  Secretion. 

The  examination  of  these  parts  is  a  work  of  great  difficulty,  owing 
to  their  extreme  delicacy  and  minuteness.  Much  of  it  requires  a  high 
power  of  microscope  and  the  skill  of  a  hand  experienced  in  dissecting  ; 
consequently  the  descriptions — as  with  the  characters  of  external  struc- 
ture— cannot  be  easily  verified  by  the  observations  of  the  tyro.  Only 
a  brief  account,  therefore,  will  be  attempted  in  this  chapter. 

The  Muscular  system  lies  just  within  the  external  crust,  or  body- 
wall,  to  which  it  is  closely  attached.  Its  use  is  to  hold  the  segments 
and  their  various  appendages  in  place,  and  to  move  them  according  to 
the  pleasure  or  necessity  of  the  insect.  It  consists  of  a  great  number 
of  distinct  fibers,  not  gathered  into  bundles  like  those  of  higher  animals, 
but  spread  out  in  thin  layers  over  the  parts  requiring  their  action.  In 
their  arrangement  the  muscles  correspond  to  the  jointed  structure  of 
the  body.  Each  segment  has  muscles  that  stretch  from  its  front  edge 
to  the  front  edge  of  the  one  succeeding  it,  and  others  that  in  like  man- 
ner connect  the  hinder  edges.  There  are  also  bands  of  muscular  fibers 
passing  around  the  body  and  others  still  that  extend  obliquely  from  one 
joint  to  another.  The  muscles  of  insects  are  a  pale  yellow  color  and 
of  a  soft,  jelly-like  consistence.  But,  although  so  delicate  in  texture, 
their  contractile  power  is  surprising.  Thus,  many  insects,  of  which 
the  flea  is  a  good  example,  are  enabled  to  leap  more  than  one  hundred 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  15 

times  their  own  height,  or  to  sustain,  without  injury,  weights  several 
hundred  times  that  of  their  own.  The  lofty  and  long-continued  flights 
of  some  species,  the  capacities  of  others  for  running,  burrowing,  bor- 
ing into  hard  substances,  and  for  carrying  or  dragging  heavy  burdens, 
all  attest  the  wonderful  strength  and  elasticity  of  their  muscles. 

The  Nervous  system  consists  of  two  delicate  cords  which  extend 
longitudinally,  the  one  above  the  other,  along  the  ventral  side  of  the 
body.  Insects  have  no  brain,  properly  so  called,  tyut  the  lower  or 
external  cord  has  a  series  of  swellings  or  nerve  knots  called  ganglia, 
varying  in  number  from  two  to  ten,  from  which  nerve  fibers  are  dis- 
tributed in  various  directions.  The  ganglion  in  the  head  is,  in  many 
species,  larger  than  the  others,  but  does  not  differ  from  them  in  any 
other  particular.  Next  to  that  the  ganglia  of  the  thorax  are  most 
developed,  especially  in  perfect  insects,  since  from  them  the  supply  of 
nerve-force  for  the  wings  and  legs  must  be  derived.  The  upper  or 
Internal  cord  is  a  simple  thread  without  nerve  knots  or  branches.  It 
lies  very  close  to  but  scarcely  in  contact  with  the  ganglionic  cord.  We 
find  in  this  nearly  equal  distribution  of  nerve  force  the  reason  why 
many  insects  can  live  for  a  considerable  time  after  a  part  of  the  body 
lias  been  crushed  or  severed,  and  why  the  separated  parts  seem  to  be 
.alike  endowed  with  vitality. 

The  Circulatory  system  of  insects  is  as  yet  but  imperfectly  under- 
stood. The  blood  is  cold  and  colorless,  or  with  a  slight  yellowish  tint. 
It  does  not  flow  through  tubes  corresponding  to  our  arteries  and  veins, 
but  seems  to  bathe  the  other  tissues  without  being  confined  to  special 
•channels.  There  is,  however,  a  long,  narrow  membranous  sac,  situated 
near  the  upper  surface  of  the  body,  which  forms  a  sort  of  heart,  the 
pulsations  of  which  can  be  distinctly  seen  in  many  thin-skinned  insects, 
especially  in  larvae.  This  tube  is  called  the  dorsal  vessel,  and  is  divided 
into  several  chambers  by  valves  which  permit  the  blood  to  pass  only  in 
a  forward  direction.  The  blood  enters  the  dorsal  vessel  through  open- 
ings in  its  sides,  and,  flowing  toward  the  head,  is  expelled  through  a 
large  artery  called  the  aorta,  from  whence  its  course  can  no  longer  be 
traced.  In  its  progress  it  is  aerified  by  contact  with  the  air  vessels 
and  mixed  with  chyle  from  the  stomach,  and  is  thus  prepared  to  nour- 
ish the  organism.  It  is  scant  in  quantity  compared  with  the  blood  of 
•vertebrates,  and  the  circulation  seems  to  be  slow. 

Respiration  or  breathing  in  insects  is  performed,  not  through  a 
single  trachea  or  air-pipe  communicating  with  a  pair  of  lungs,  as  in 
most  of  the  higher  animals,  but  through  a  series  of  delicate  tubes  which 
•divide  and  subdivide  so  as  TO  permeate  all  parts  of  the  body.  The 
openings  to  these  tubes  are  in  most  insects  on  the  sides  of  the  seg- 
E— 2 


16  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

ments,  and  are  termed  the  spiracles  or  stigmata.  They  vary  in  number 
from  two  in  some  water  insects  to  eleven,  usually  nine,  pairs,  and  are  often 
quite  conspicuous,  especially  in  larvae.  In  their  perfect  state  insects 
breathe  mainly  through  the  first  four  or  five  pairs  of  orifices,  and  conse- 
quently most  species  may  be  easily  suffocated  and  killed  by  a  sharp 
pinch  or  continued  pressure  on  the  thorax.  Many  insects  have  large 
vesicles  connected  with  the  trachea  which  they  innate  when  about  to 
fly,  thus  lessening  their  specific  gravity  and  enabling  them  to  continue 
long  on  the  wing  with  less  muscular  exertion  than  would  otherwise  be 
necessary.  The  breathing  organs  of  aquatic  insects  are  termed  branchia* 
They  are  analogous  to  the  gills  of  fishes  and  present  many  very  sin- 
gular forms. 

The  organs  of  Nutrition  are  few  in  number  and  simple  in  structure 
They  consist  principally  of  the  mouth,  already  described,  by  which  the 
food  is  seized  and  masticated,  and,  internally,  of  a  large,  long  tube  in 
which  digestion  takes  place.  This  tube  is  the  alimentary. canal,  and 
occupies  a  central  position  in  the  body  of  the  insect.  In  the  more 
lowly  species  it  is  simply  a  straight  duct  or  sac  extending  the  whole 
length  of  the  body ;  but  in  the  highly  organized  forms  it  is  contracted 
at  intervals  so  as  to  form  several  chambers,  each  of  which  has  a  dis- 
tinct function.  It  terminates  in  a  convolution  of  minute  tubes  that  are 
supposed  to  represent  the  liver  and  the  small  intestines  of  higher  ani- 
mals. The  sesophagus  or  gullet  opens  into  the  first  chamber  or  cavity 
of  the  central  canal,  which  is  analogous  to  the  crop.  This  in  turn  com- 
municates with  a  smaller  cavity,  which  is  ridged  internally  or  covered 
with  hard,  tooth-like  points,  and  performs  the  office  of  a  gizzard,  from 
which  the  food  passes  into  the  largest  alimentary  division,  representing 
the  true  stomach.  In  the  latter  are  secreted  the  gastric  and  pan- 
creatic fluids,  which,  mingling  with  the  comminuted  food,  prepare  it  to 
nourish  the  system.  The  digestive  powers  of  insects  are  enormous  in 
proportion  to  their  size,  many  species  of  herbivorous  larvae  being 
capable  of  digesting  more  than  twice  their  own  weight  of  leaves  in  the- 
course  of  a  day. 

The  organs  of  secretion,  aside  from  those  that  elaborate  the  fluids 
necessary  to  digestion,  consist  mainly  of  the  salivary,  odoriferous  and 
poison  glands.  The  salivary  glands,  so  called,  are  greatly  developed  in 
such  insects  as  the  silk-worm,  and  the  bee  and  wasp.  They  consist  of 
two  tubes,  running  parallel  to  the  anterior  portion  of  the  alimentary 
canal.  In  the  silk- worm  and  other  larvae  of  the  same  family  these 
glands  secrete  the  gum  which,  when  drawn  out  through  a  little  pointed 
tube  beneath  the  mouth,  becomes  the  beautiful  and  valuable  fiber 
known 


OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  17 

The  salivary  fluid  is  used  by  the  bee  and  wasp  to  moisten  and 
cement  the  particles  of  sap  and  wood  from  which  the  brood  and  honey 
cells  are  made. 

The  odoriferous  organs  are  of  various  construction,  and  are  located 
in  some  species  in  one  part  of  the  body,  and  in  others  in  another.  They 
are  designed  in  some  cases  as  a  means  of  attraction  between  the  sexes  ; 
in  others  to  repel  the  attacks  of  their  enemies. 

The  poison  glands  are  situated  sometimes  in  the  mouth,  but  more 
frequently  at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  The  poison  is  of  the  nature  of 
an  acid,  and  is  injected  into  wounds  made  by  the  jaws  or  by  the  piercer 
or  sting.  Its  use  is  to  ward  off  or  revenge  the  attacks  of  foes  and  to 
paralyze  or  kill  the  prey  required  by  the  insect  for  its  own  food  or  as 
food  for  its  young. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

TRANSFORMATION   OF  INSECTS. 


Transformations  of  a  lepidopterous  insect,  the  corn 
worm  or  boll  worm  (Heliothes  armigera),  after  Riley ;  a,  b, 
egg,  magnified;  c,  larvse;  d,  pupa;  e  /,  imago  or  moth. 

The  transformations  or  metamorphoses  of  insects  have  been  already 
alluded  to  as  one  of  their  most  peculiar  and  interesting  characteristics. 
These  are  certain  changes  of  form  and  habit  by  which  the  life  of  every 
insect,  after  hatching,  is  divided  into  three  more  or  less  distinct  periods 
or  stages. 

Transformation  may  be  either  complete  or  partial.  It  is  complete  when 
the  appearance  and  general  habit  of  the  insect  is  so  different  at  each 
stage  of  its  existence,  that  only  experience  enables  us  to  recognize  the 
various  forms  as  pertaining  to  the  same  individual ;  and  partial  when 
the  insect  retains  essentially  the  same  form  and  habit  during  life,  its 


18  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

successive  stages  of  development  being  marked  only  by  the  acquisition 
of  certain  organs  and  appendages. 

The  most  familiar  example  of  complete  transformation  is  afforded 
by  an  insect  which  in  its  first  active  state  is  a  sluggish,  worm-like  cater- 
pillar, feeding  voraciously  on  herbage,  and  changing  in  due  time  to  the 
inactive,  casket-like  chrysalis,  which  bears  as  little  resemblance  to  the 
larvae  that  preceded  it  as  to  the  imago  that  shall  ultimately  escape  from 
it,  viz.,  the  broad-winged,  bright-hued  butterfly,  instinct  with  graceful 
activity,  as  it  hovers  over  the  flowers  from  which  it  sips  is  sole  nourish- 
ment, a  dainty  draught  of  nectar.  Examples  of  partial  transformation 
are  found  in  such  insects  as  grasshoppers,  locusts,  true  bugs,  etc. 

The  life  of  an  insect  begins  with  the  embryo  contained  in  an  egg. 
Instinct  guides  the  parent  insect  in  the  placing  of  her  eggs,  so  that  her 
progeny,  as  soon  as  hatched,  find  themselve  surrounded  with  the  kind 
of  food  they  require.  The  eggs  of  insects  are  of  various  forms — round, 
oval,  conical  or  disk -like.  They  are  deposited  singly  or  in  clusters  ; 
sometimes  openly  exposed  on  the  surfaces  of  leaves  or  stems,  some- 
times concealed  with  the  utmost  ingenuity.  Those  of  many  species  are 
beautifully  colored  or  elegantly  sculptured.  The  eggs  of  some  small 
insects  which  produce  but  few  are  proportionately  large,  while  on  the 
other  hand  many  large  insects  lay  very  minute  eggs,  but  make  up  in 
number  what  is  lacking  in  size. 

The  insect  in  hatching  from  the  egg  enters  on  its  larval  stage  of 
existence.  This  is  the  form  in  which  all  actual  growth  takes  place,  and 
in  which,  as  a  consequence,  the  insect  requires  most  food.  It  may,  in 
succeeding  stages  of  development,  assume  different  forms  and  acquire 
additional  members,  but  it  never  really  increases  in  bulk. 

The  larvae  of  the  various  kinds  of  insects  differ  so  much  in  appear- 
ance, and  in  many  other  respects,  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  a  list  of 
characters  that  are  common  to  all.  The  typical  form  is  more*or  less 
worm-like:  i.  e.,  cylindrical  and  elongate;  but  the  variations  from  this 
type  are  exceedingly  numerous,  even  among  insects  whose  transforma- 
tions are  complete;  while  those  that  undergo  only  partial  transforma- 
tion do  not  conform  to  it  at  all. 

In  the  majority  of  larvae  the  thorax  and  abdomen  are  not  distinct, 
except  that  the  first  mentioned  region  is  often  provided  with  the  rudi- 
ments of  legs.  The  latter  are  of  a  shelly  texture,  small  and  pointed  at 
the  extremity,  with  three  or  four  joints.  They  are  six  in  number,  and 
are  termed  the  true  or  thoracic  legs,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  fleshy 
disks  called  false  legs  or  prolegs,  which  in  many  species  support  the 
hinder  part  of  the  body. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  19 

Many  larvae,  such  as  those  of  bees,  flies  and  some  species  of  beetle  s, 
have  neither  legs  nor  prolegs — their  movements,  in  consequence  of 
this  lack,  being  much  restricted. 

In  their  habits  larvae  are  either  active  or  inactive.  The  former — 
including  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  young  of  insects — are 
capable  of  sufficient  exertion  to  enable  them  to  provide  for  their  own 
necessities. 

Inactive  or  sedentary  larvae,  on  the  contrary,  are  hatched  in  cells 
or  chambers,  which  they  never  leave,  and  subsist  upon  food  previously 
stored  for  their  use,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  bees  and  ants,  they  are  the 
objects  of  constant  attention  from  the  mature  insects. 

In  the  course  of  their  growth  all  larvae  molt  or  shed  their  skins 
several  times.  This  singular  process  becomes  necessary  at  intervals, 
because  the  external  covering  will  only  admit  of  stretching  to  a  limited 
extent.  A  new  skin  is  constantly  forming  under  the  outer  one,  and 
when  the  latter  becomes  too  tight  it  is — after  some  preliminary  fasting 
and  other  preparation — ruptured  and  cast  off,  and  the  larvae  appears  in 
a  new  and  for  a  time,  more  elastic  dress.  The  usual  number  of  molts 
is  four  or  five.  A  few  insects  of  the  lower  orders  molt  but  twice,  while 
others,  especially  certain  aquatic  species  and  others  whose  larval  life 
is  long,  molt  from  ten  to  twenty  times.  Sedentary  larvae  shed  their 
skins  in  shreds  and  by  degrees. 

The  length  of  larval  life  varies  with  the  different  species.  Many 
complete  their  growth  in  a  very  short  time,  often  within  a  week,  while 
some  continue  to  grow  from  one  to  several  years.  The  average  length 
of  larval  life  among  herbivorous  insects  is  about  four  weeks. 

When  the  limit  of  growth  is  reached  the  larva  ceases  to  feed,  and, 
guided  by  instinct,  prepares  for  its  first  transformation.  Inactive  larvae 
spin  a  slight  web  around  their  delicate  bodies,  and  some  kinds  are 
sealed  up  in  their  cells  by  the  mature  iusects. 

Active  larvae  take  various  measures  to  secure  themselves  from  ob- 
servation and  injury  during  the  time  when  they  shall  be  powerless  to 
escape  from  or  defend  themselves  against  their  enemies.  Some  creep 
into  crevices  of  stones  or  bark,  or  hide  ingeniously  among  crumpled 
leaves.  A  large  proportion  burrow  into  the  earth;  others  spin  for 
their  protection  thick,  silken  or  parchment-like  cocoons,  while  some 
require  nothing  more  than  a  retired  nook  in  which  to  suspend  them- 
selves by  slender  but  strong  cables  of  silk.  After  a  longer  or  shorter 
rest  in  their  various  retreats,  the  larval  skins  are  cast  off  for  the  last 
time,  and  each  insect  appears  in  a  new  and  entirely  different  form  and 
is  termed  a  pupa. 


20  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

In  the  pupa  state  most  insects  are  quiescent  and  apparently  life- 
less, and  while  it  continues  are  incapable  of  taking  food  or  performing 
any  of  the  active  functions  of  life.  Pupae  that  are  enclosed  in  cocoons 
or  cells  are  termed  folliculate.  A  pupa  destined  to  give  forth  a  butter- 
fly is  designated  a  chrysalis,  from  a  Greek  word  meaning  golden,  in 
reference  to  the  gilded  ornamentation  of  many  chrysalides. 

There  are  two  forms  of  quiescent  pupae,  the  oUeeted  and  the 
coarctate.  In  the  first  mentioned  form  the  legs,  wings  and  antennae  of 
the  future  imago  are  shown,  each  enclosed  in  a  separate  sheath.  The 
pupae  of  bees,  wasps,  beetles,  etc.,  are  obtected.  In  coarctate  pupae  a 
continuous  shell  encloses  the  members  as  well  as  the  body  of  the 
insect. 

The  pupae  of  insects  not  subject  to  complete  metamorphosis  are 
active,  and  do  not  differ  much  either  in  form  or  habit  from  the  full- 
grown  larvae,  except  in  the  greater  development  of  the  rudimentary 
wings. 

After  a  certain  time,  varying  with  the  nature  of  the  insect  and  with 
the  season  of  the  year,  the  second  transformation  takes  place  and  the 
insect  issues  from  the  pupa  shell  in  its  mature  or  perfect  form. 

In  this  stage  of  its  existence  it  is,  with  a  few  exceptions,  charac- 
terized by  the  possession  of  fully  developed  wings.  It  has  also  large, 
compound  eyes,  conspicuous  antennae  and  various  other  organs  which 
did  not  appear  in  its  preceding  forms..  The  head,  thorax  and  abdomen 
are  now  well-defined  regions,  and  the  sexes  can  usually  be  distinguished 
with  ease.  In  most  species  the  females  are  larger  than  the  males,  and 
the  latter,  besides  being  more  slender  in  body,  ar'e  often  more  gaily 
colored  and  have  the  antennae  longer  or  more  ornamental  than  those  of 
the  female. 

The  abdomen  of  the  female  is  furnished  with  an  ingenious  instru- 
ment called  an  ovipositor,  through  which  the  eggs  are  conducted  to 
such  situations  as  will  be  most  favorable  to  the  future  larvae.  It  serves 
not  only  to  place  the  eggs,  but  is  used  by  many  insects  to  drill  holes  or 
saw  slits  or  otherwise  prepare  suitable  receptacles  for  them.  In  such 
species  the  ovipositor  is  usually  a  very  conspicuous  appendage.  In 
others  it  is,  when  not  in  use,  drawn  entirely  within  the  body. 

As  previously  remarked,  after  insects  have  acquired  their  wings 
they  never  grow.  Thus  the  idea  that  little  flies  or  gnats  develop  into 
"house-flies"  or  "blue-bottles,"  as  some  people  suppose,  or  that  little 
beetles  or  bugs  or  butterflies  ever  grow  to  be  large  beetles  or  bugs  or 
butterflies,  is  seen  to  be  entirely  erroneous. 

Since  perfect  insects  do  not  grow,  it  follows  that  they  require  but 
little  food  ;  some  are  incapable  of  taking  even  a  sip  of  dew  or  nectar. 


OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  21 

•Others,  like  the  butterfly  and  wasp,  have  a  very  different  diet  from  that 
upon  which  they  subsisted  as  larvae.  Some  species,  however,  such  as 
locusts,  leaf-eating  beetles,  etc.,  retain  their  voracious  propensities 
throughout  life. 

Hyper-metamorphosis,  which  attends  the  development  of  a  few 
species  of  parasitic  beetles  and  some  flies  of  the  Ephemera  family,  is 
the  assumption  of  more  than  the  usual  number  of  forms  in  the  process 
of  growth.  The  transformations  of  such  species  are  not  invariably 
from  a  lower  to  a  higher  organization,  but  some  of  the  intermediate 
stages  are  often  of  a  retrograde  character.  This  anomalous  mode  of 
development  will  be  illustrated  in  succeeding  chapters  in  connection 
with  the  history  of  the  Blister  beetles,  Bee  parasites  and  Nerve -winged 
flies. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  history,  continually  repeated,  of  all  insect 
life;  but  the  number  of  species  is  so  vast,  and  their  forms  and  habits 
«o  different,  that  the  careful  observer  finds  an  infinite  variety  of  detail 
which  gives  continual  novelty  and  interest  to  the  subject. 


22 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 


ILLUSTRATIONS    OF  THE   SEVEN  PRINCIPAL   ORDERS  OF  INSECTS,. 


Butterfly,  Order  III. 


Beetle,  Order  II. 


Wood-boring  Wasp,  Order  I. 


Locust,  Order  VI. 


Ant-Lion,  Order  VII. 


,  Syrphus  fly,  Order  IV.. 


Bug,  Order  V. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  23- 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CLASSIFICATION   AND   NAMES    OF   INSECTS. 

Having  in  preceding  chapters  considered  the  characters  by  which- 
insects  are  distinguished  from  all  other  animals,  we  shall  now  proceed 
to  notice  those  by  which  they  may  be  distinguished  from  each  other. 

As  a  preliminary  to  such  observation  it  will  be  a  good  plan  for  the 
student  to  collect  for  an  hour  or  two  in  various  situations — field,  wood 
and  water-courses —  all  the  insects  that  he  can  find.  When  these  are 
examined  he  will  perceive  at  a  glance  that  they  are  not  all  alike — that 
they  differ  in  form,  size,  color,  and  in  many  points  of  structure.  He 
may  then  proceed  to  assort  them,  placing  together  those  that  appear 
to  be  exactly  alike.  The  next  step  will  be  to  compare  the  different 
lots,  when  it  will  be  found  that  several  of  these  closely  resemble  one 
or  more  of  the  other  lots,  and  such  may  be  arranged  side  by  side. 
Still  other  combinations  may  be  made  with  these  compound  groups r 
until  finally  the  entire  collection  will  be  embraced  in  a  few  comprehen- 
sive assemblages.  These  groups  may  be  considered  to  represent  Spe- 
cies, Genera,  Families  and  Orders. 

Classification  consists  in  a  systematic  arrangement  of  specimens 
according  to  their  place  in  each  division,  thus  showing  their  near  and 
their  remote  relationships.  By  means  of  it  we  are  enabled  to  consider 
a  multitude  of  organic  forms  under  a  few  general  heads. 

A  Species  comprises  all  individuals  that  are  supposed  to  have  had 
a  common  parentage,  and  are  exactly  alike  in  all  essential  points  of 
structure  and  habit. 

A  Genus  ( plural  genera)  is  an  assemblage  of  species  that  are  not 
the  same  in  all  particulars,  but  have  more  points  of  resemblance  than 
of  difference. 

The  characters  upon  which  genera  are  based  are  different  in  the- 
different  families  of  insects,  and  even  concerning  insects  in  the  same 
family  the  opinions  of  entomologists  differ  as  to  what  constitutes  a 
character  of  generic  value. 

A  Family  includes  all  the  genera  that  have  in  common  a  few  impor- 
tant peculiarities  of  form  and  habit. 

A  Tribe  is  an  assemblage  of  families  whose  relationship,  though 
remote,  is  inferred  from  the  similar  structure  of  a  few  organs. 

An  Order  includes  all  these  groups  and  is  founded  upon  agreement 
in  general  structure  and  mode  of  development. 


24  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

With  insects,  as  with  all  other  organic  beings,  the  species  is  the 
root  of  classification— the  only  group  defined  by  nature.  All  other 
associations  of  forms,  though  based  upon  natural  affinities,  have  been 
devised  by  man,  and,  being  in  a  sense  artificial,  are  liable  to  rearrange- 
ment, restriction  or  extension  whenever  new  discoveries,  or  the  adop- 
tion of  new  theories  of  classification,  make  such  changes  seem  desirable. 

In  classifying  insects  we  first  group  them  according  to  their  gen- 
eral structure  :  i.  e.,  arrange  them  in  their  proper  Order,  Tribe,  Family 
etc.,  which  is  ordinarily  quite  easy,  after  which  we  proceed  to  look  up 
the  more  difficult  matters  of  genus  and  species. 

The  first  step,  then,  is  to  determine  in  which  Order  a  given  speci- 
men belongs.  This  can  usually  be  decided  without  difficulty  by  an 
examination  of  the  wings,  for  in  the  system  of  classification  most  gen- 
erally adopted,  the  Orders — seven  in  number — are  mainly  founded  upon 
the  character  of  these  conspicuous  and  important  organs,  and  the 
names  of  these  Orders  are  Greek  compounds  of  which  the  termination 
jptera  means  wings^  while  the  prefix  describes  the  kind  of  wing. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among  writers  as  to  the  rela- 
tive rank  of  the  Orders,  but  the  following  arrangement  seems  most  in 
harmony  with  the  development  of  the  insects  included  in  each  Order, 
-and  has  the  sanction  of  a  majority  ot  the  best  authorities  : 

I.  H  YMENOPTERA  (membrane- wings),  bees,  wasps,  ants,  etc. 

Jl.  COLEOPTERA  (sheath-wings),  beetles. 

III.  LEPIDOPTERA  (scale-wings),  butterflies  and  moths. 

IV.  D1PTERA  (two  wings),  house-flies,  mosquitoes,  gnats,  etc. 
V.  HEM1PTERA  (half-wings),  true  bugs,  cicadas,  plant  lice,  etc. 

VI.    ORTHOPTERA  (straight- wings),  grasshoppers,  katy-dids,  crickets,  etc. 
VII.    NEUROPTERA  (nerve-wings),  dragon-flies,  lace- wing  flies,  etc. 

Two  of  these  orders,  COLEOPTERA  and  DLPTERA,  were  defined 
^according  to  the  type  of  wing,  by  the  Greek  philosopher  Aristotle, 
more  than  three  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that  entomology  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  natural 
sciences,  although  for  many  centuries  it  made  little  or  no  true  progress. 

Adopting  the  idea  of  Aristotle,  Linnaeus  (or  Linne),  a  Swedish  nat- 
uralist, and  the  most  celebrated  one  of  the  eighteenth  century,  pro- 
posed five  additional  orders.  In  his  system,  however,  the  ORTHOP- 
TERA were  included  with  the  HEM1PTERA,  and  the  seventh  order 
APTERA  was  devised  to  contain  all  insects  which,  in  their  perfect  state, 
lacked  wings.  But  as  it  was  long  since  discovered  that  wingless  spe- 
cies and  wingless  females  exist  in  each  of  the  orders,  from  which  it 
would  be  extremely  inconvenient  to  separate  them,  the  order  APTERA 
was  dropped  and  its  number  made  good  by  a  very  necessary  separa- 
tion of  the  ORTHOPTERA  from  the  HEMIPTERA. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  25 

Recent  authors  have  multiplied  and  rearranged  the  orders  of  in- 
sects on  various  other  plans,  founded  in  many  cases  on"  very  obvious 
natural  distinctions,  but  the  arrangement  here  presented  forms  a  very 
good  basis  for  subdivision,  and  meets  with  continued  favor  from  a 
majority  of  our  naturalists. 

In  science  the  name  of  every  animal  and  plant  is  a  double  one : 
First,  the  name  of  the  genus  to  which  it  belongs,  called  the  generic 
name ;  and  second,  the  name  of  the  species  which  it  represents,  called 
the  specific  name.  These  scientific  names  are  usually  derived  from  the 
Greek  and  Latin  or  have  their  terminations  from  those  languages. 

The  names  of  tribes  often  refer  to  the  style  of  that  particular  organ 
in  which  all  the  species  included  in  them  agree.  The  names  of  families 
are  usually  adapted  from  that  of  the  leading  genus.  The  generic  name 
may  refer  to  some  prominent  characteristic  of  the  typical  species,  or 
may  be  entirely  fanciful.  It  is  always  a  proper  noun  and  should  be 
written  with  a  capital. 

The  specific  name  is  sometimes  from  some  attribute  of  the  species, 
or  from  the  plant  or  other  substance  on  which  it  feeds,  sometimes  from 
a  resemblance  it  bears  to  some  other  object,  and  not  infrequently  from 
the  name  of  the  discoverer  or  some  person  whom  the  describer  wishes 
to  compliment.  It  is  either  an  adjective  or  a  noun  in  the  possessive 
case,  and  is  now  seldom  written  with  a  capital,  not  even  when  it  is  de- 
rived from  the  name  of  a  person. 

It  often  happens  that  the  same  species  is  described  by  two  or  more 
authors,  and  although  the  name  first  published  is  considered  to  be  the 
correct  one,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  discover  which  this  is.  To  prevent 
confusion,  therefore,  as  well  as  to  give  each  author  credit  for  his  work, 
it  is  customary  to  add  after  the  name  of  the  insect  that  of  the  author 
who  bestowed  it,  thus :  Dynastes  tityrus  of  Linnaeus,  or  Papilio  asterlas, 
•Cramer.  The  names  of  the  authors  aife  commonly  abbreviated  as 
Linn,  for  Linnaeus,  Cram,  for  Cramer,  Fabr.  for  Fabricius,  etc. 

Besides  their  scientific  names,  many  insects  have  common  or 
popular  names.  For  instance,  in  this  country  we  have  the  "  Bed  Ad- 
miral" butterfly,  the  "  Devil's  riding  horse,"  the  "May  beetle  or  June 
bug,"  the  "Chinch  bug,"  the  "  Weevil,"  and  many  others.  Some  of 
these  names  are  known  and  correctly  applied  everywhere ;  others  are 
very  local,  and  in  other  sections  of  the  country  people  would  not 
know  to  what  insect  they  pertained. 

Another  advantage  in  the  use  of  the  scientific  name-is  that  it  is 
perfectly  intelligible  to  educated  people  in  all  countries,  and,  when 
given  in  accordance  with  established  rules,  there  is  seldom  any  question 


26  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

as  to  the  species  designated.  Whenever,  therefore,  exactness  is  re- 
quired, the  scientific  name  should  accompany  the  popular  one,  and  in* 
these  cases  it  is  enclosed  in  parenthesis.  For  example  :  The  Golden- 
Tortoise  beetles  (Cassida  aurichalcea,  Fabr). 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Order  I.    HYMENOPTERA.. 

[Fi*.  9.] 


Bald-faced  Hornet  (Vespa  maculata), 
after  Biley. 

This  Order  includes  the  Bees,  Wasps,  Ants,  Ichneumon  flies  and 
other  four-winged  parasites,  Gall  flies,  Saw  flies,  and  a  few  Wood  borers. 
These  are  not  by  any  means  the  largest  or  most  conspicuous  of  insects,. 
but  they  occupy  the  highest  rank  on  account  of  their  perfection  of  form 
and  the  remarkable  intelligence  which  many  of  them  display.  The  three 
leading  groups  have  from  time  immemorial  attracted  the  attention  of 
man  by  their  interesting  social  relations,  their  industry,  their  mechani- 
cal skill,  and  their  tender  care  for  their  young — in  these  respects  dis- 
playing a  wonderful  analogy  to  the  traits  and  enterprises  of  the  human 
race. 

Another  reason  for  giving  this  Order  precedence  is  that  among 
its  members  we  find  the  rru&st  complete  metamorphosis — the  larvae- 
being  far  more  helpless  and  dependent  on  the  personal  care  or  the 
most  painstaking  prevision  of  the  mature  insects  than  is  the  case  of 
the  young  of  other  Orders.  In  this,  also,  there  is  an  interesting  cor- 
respondence to  man,  who  in  infancy  is  utterly  incapable  of  taking  care 
of  himself,  far  more  so  than  any  of  the  lower  animals. 

The  frame  of  hymenopterous  insects  is,  in  most  of  the  species, 
very  hard  and  compact,  especially  on  the  thorax.  The  surface  is,  in 
some,  smooth  and  polished,  and  often  brilliantly  colored ;  in  others  it  i» 
densely  clothed  with  short  hairs,  giving  it  a  resemblance  to  plush  or 
velvet. 

The  head  is  comparatively  large,  and  is  attached,  vertically,  to- 
the  thorax  by  a  short,  slender  neck,  upon  which  it  can  be  freely  turned 
in  any  direction.  The  mouth  is  provided  with  apparatus  for  both  bit- 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  27 

ing  and  sticking,  but  the  upper  jaws  (mandibles),  though  large  and 
sharply  toothed,  are  but  little  used  in  mastication,  but  serve  instead  as 
tools,  of  which  very  skillful  and  effective  use  is  made  in  various  me- 
chanical enterprises.  The  lower  jaws  (maxillae)  and  lower  lips  (labii)  are 
greatly  changed  from  the  typical  form,  to  adapt  them  for  taking  up  liquid 
nourishment,  upon  which  the  perfect  insects  mainly  subsist.  The  com- 
pound eyes  cover  a  considerable  portion  of  the  head,  and  are  either 
round,  oblong  or  kidney-shaped  (reniform).  Upon  the  top  of  the  head 
three  small  simple  eyes  (ocelli)  can  in  most  species  be  plainly  seen.  The 
antennae  are  short  and  stout  or  long  and  slender  (filiform),  or  flail-shaped : 
i.  e.,  bent  in  the  middle  and  thickened  more  or  less  toward  the  tips. 

The  first  joint  of  the  thorax  (the  pro-thorax)  is  very  narrow  and 
on  top  crowded  down  almost  or  quite  out  of  sight ;  but  the  second 
and  third  joints  (the  meso-thorax  and  meta-thorax)  are  large,  and  to- 
gether form  a  compact  and  nearly  globular  division  of  the  body.  The 
legs  vary  considerably  in  form  in  the  different  groups,  but  are  usually 
long  and  rather  slender,  and  terminate  in  five-jointed  feet  (tarsi).  The 
wings  are  composed  of  glassy  or  mica-like  membrane,  supported  by  a 
few  strong  veins.  In  a  majority  of  the  species  they  are  quite  narrow, 
the  under  pair  being  smaller  than  the  upper,  arid  during  flight  are 
-attached  to  the  latter  by  the  row  of  minute  hooks  which  may  be  seen 
on  their  upper  (costal)  edges,  which  catch  into  a  ridge  made  for  that 
purpose  on  the  lower  (inner)  margin  of  the  upper  pair.  In  a  great 
number  of  species  of  Hymenoptera  the  abdomen  swells  out  in  the  mid- 
dle, tapering  to  a  point  at  the  posterior  end,  and  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  a  slender  joint,  of  greater  or  less  length,  called  the  pedicel 
or  petiole,  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  thorax.  From  six  to  eight 
rings  or  segments  only  can  be  distinguished  in  the  abdomen.  Each  of 
these  appears  to  be  composed  of  two  plates,  an  upper  and  a  lower  (a 
dorsal  and  a  ventral),  the  former  overlapping  the  latter  on  the  sides. 
'The  tip  of  the  abdomen  of  the  female  is  always  modified  into  an  ovi- 
positor. If  this  organ  is  connected  with  a  poison  gland  and  drawn 
within  the  body  when  not  in  use,  it  is  called  a  sting;  but  if  it  is  a  con- 
spicuous appendage  and  not  capable  of  emitting  poison,  it  is  termed  a 
piercer. 

[Figs,  loaudii,]  The  larvae  of  the  higher  Hymenoptera  are, 

for  the  most  part,  soft,  fleshy,  footless  grubs, 
confined  during  the  whole  of  the  growing  pe- 
riod to  the  cells  of  wax,  paper  or  mad  in  which 
they  are  hatched.  Some  species  subsist  upon 
food  stored  in  their  cells  at  the  time  the  eggs 
from  which  they  hatch  are  laid  ;  others  require 
Larva>nd  pupa- of  wasp,  constant  feeding  and  care  from  the  mature  in- 


28  OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

sects  that  have  them  in  charge.  The  larvae  of  some  of  the  lower  fami- 
lies in  the  Order  are  more  independent.  The  mother  insect  having- 
placed  her  eggs  upon  the  leaves  or  in  the  wood  on  which  her  instinct 
teaches  her  her  young  will  thrive,  the  latter  are,  upon  hatching,  able 
to  provide  for  themselves. 

When  full  grown  most  of  these  larvae  spin  a  thin,  oblong,  silken 
cocoon,  within  which,  after  a  short  rest,  they  change  to  pupae.  The 
pupae  are  quiescent  and  of  the  obtected  form,  each  leg,  wing  and  an- 
tenna being  enclosed  in  its  own  sheath,  which  fits  it  as  neatly  as  a  glove 
finger  fits  a  finger  of  the  human  hand. 

All  the  members  are  closely  applied  to  the  body  and  remain  immov- 
able until  the  time  of  the  second  transformation.  As  a  rule,  eight  or 
ten  days  only  are  passed  in  the  pupa  state.  Then  the  membranous 
covering  splits  on  the  top  of  the  thorax,  the  head,  legs  and  embryo 
wings  are  drawn  out  of  their  coverings,  and  the  insect  gnaws  open  the 
end  of  its  cocoon  and  lifts  the  covering  to  its  cell — unless  the  latter 
is  opened  for  it  by  one  of  the  mature  "worker"  insects — and  after  a  pe- 
riod of  hardening  and  general  preparation,  varying  from  an  hour  or 
two  to  one  or  two  days,  it  lifts  itself  by  its  strong  new  wings  and  sails 
away  into  the  sunshine.  The  Hyinenoptera  are  mostly  diurnal  insects,, 
and  are  seldom  seen  upon  the  wing,  except  during  warm,  pleasant 
weather.  The  primary  division  of  the  Order,  founded  upon  peculiari- 
ties of  structure  and  habit,  is  into  two  sections : 

1.  Stinging  Insects  (A  o  u  L  E  A  T  A),  comprising  the  Bees,  Wasps 
and  Ants. 

2.  Piercing  Insects  (T  E  R  E  B  R  A  N  T I  A),  comprising  several  fami- 
lies of  Parasitic  Flies,  Gall-flies,  Saw-flies  and  Wood-borers.     In  the 
first  section  the  sexes  are  distinguished  by  a  difference  in  tl^e  number 
of  the  joints  of  the  antennas  and  the  abdomen — the  antennas  of  the 
males  having  thirteen  joints  and  the  abdomen  seven  apparent  segments, 
while  the  antennae  of  the  females  have  but  twelve  joints  and  the  abdomen 
only  six  distinguishable  segments.     All  the  females  belonging  in  this- 
section  have  the  ovipositor  (the  organ  by  which  the  eggs  are  placed) 
connected  with  two  poison  glands ;  and  whenever  this  instrument  is 
used  as  a  weapon,  a  minute  portion  of  the  acrid  fluid  is  forced  into  the 
wound  made  by  its  point  and  causes  a  burning  and  stinging  pain. 

This  poison  is  used  by  certain  wasps  to  paralyze  other  insects  and 
spiders  which  they  collect  and  store  in  cells  as  food  for  their  young. 
In  this  case  it  does  not  Jcill,  but  produces  in  the  victims  a  state  of  help- 
less torpor  in  which  they  continue  until  devoured  by  the  wasp  larvae. 


OUTLINES    OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  29 

The  Stinging  Hymenoptera  are  separated  into  four  very  distinct 
tribes : 

1st.    Bees  (Anthophila — flower-lovers). 

2d.     True  Wasps  (Diploptera — double-wings). 

3d.      Wood  and  Sand  Wasps  (Fossores — diggers). 

4th.    Ants  (Heterogyna — different  females). 

Each  of  these  tribes  includes  several  families,  the  peculiarities  of 
which  will  be  noticed  in  succeeding  chapters.  The  Piercing  insects 
composing  the  second  division  of  the  Order  are  distinguished  chiefly 
by  the  absence  of  the  poison  gland.  In  the  higher  families  the  form  of 
the  body  and  the  venation  of  the  wings  are  much  like  those  of  bees 
and  wasps,  the  most  obvious  difference  being  the  more  lengthened  ab- 
domen and  the  excerted  and  often  conspicuous  ovipositor.  The  more 
lowly  forms  of  the  Piercing  species  have  the  abdomen  joined  to  the 
thorax  by  a  wide  base  instead  of  a  slender  pedicel,  the  wings  are  more 
net-veined,  and  in  their  immature  stages  they  approach  certain  groups 
of  the  Lepidoptera.  The  section  is  subdivided  into  two  comprehen- 
sive tribes : 

1st.    Four-winged  Parasites  ( Entomophaga — insect-eaters). 

2d.     Saw-flies  and  Wood-borers  (Phytophaga — plant-eaters). 

The  Plant-eaters  include  almost  all  the  insects  in  the  Order  that 
are  seriously  injurious.  All  the  others  are  either  beneficial — some  of 
them  in  a  very  high  degree — or  neutral  in  their  relations  to  man. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Order  HYMENOPTERA.     Section  Ac  ULB  AT  A 
BEES  (Anthophila). 


[Fig.  12.] 


Honey  Bee. 

The  Bees  are  very  apppropriately  termed  the  "  Flower-lovers,"  since 
they  are,  in  all  stages  of  their  lives,  wholly  dependent  upon  the  floral  pro- 
ducts, nectar  and  pollen,  for  their  food.  And  in  the  economy  of  nature 
this  dependence  is,  to  a  great  extent,  mutual ;  for  while  the  Bees  are  seek- 
in  g  sustenance  for  themselves  and  their  young  from  flower  to  flower, 
they  are  at  the  same  time  unconsciously  assisting  the  latter  to  produce 
good  seed  as  a  result  of  cross- fertilization,  the  pollen  from  the  stamens 
of  one  plant  or  blossom  being  carried  by  them  to  the  pistils  of  another. 


.30  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

Thus  we  see  that  while  Bees  could  not  live  without  flowers,  many 
flowering  plants  would  soon  cease  to  exist  but  for  the  agency  of  Bees 
in  assisting  them  to  a  vigorous  development. 

It  is  said  there  are  over  two  thousand  species  of  bees,  the  majority 
of  which  are  small-sized  and  plainly-colored  insects.  They  are  distin- 
guished from  other  Hymenoptera  by  the  structure  of  the  mouth  and 
legs,  which  are  peculiarly  adapted  for  collecting  and  conveying  nectar 
and  pollen.  The  mouth  of  the  Honey  Bee,  for  example,  is  quite  differ- 
13.]  ent  from  that  of  other  biting  insects.  To  the  naked 

eye  it  appears  like  a  bundle  of  flat,  pointed  bristles, 
but  when  examined  under  the  microscope  these  take 
the  forms  represented  in  Fig.  13.  The  outer  jaws 
are  large  and  strong,  adapted  for  use  as  tools,  such 
as  scissors,  knives,  trowels,  and  so  forth.  The  inner  or 
lower  jaws  (maxillae),  of  which  there  are  two  pairs, 
consist  of  long,  slender  jointed  blades,  which  are 
used  for  piercing  and  probing,  while  the  under  lip 
(labium)  is  prolonged  into  a  sort  of  hairy  tongue. 
Head  of  Bee.  very  flexible,  with  which  the  nectar  of  flowers  is 
lapped  up,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  maxillae  drawn  back  and  deposited 
in  the  k'  honey  crop  "  or  provenculus  where,  by  some  mysterious  chemi- 
cal process,  the  crude  nectar  is  transformed  into  the  delicious  substance 
known  as  honey.  Such  proportion  of  it  as  is  required  by  the  insect 
for  food  passes  onward  through  the  digestive  tubes,  while  the  surplus 
is  regurgitated  into  cells  and  stored  for  food  for  itself  or  the  young  of 
which  it  has  the  care. 

When  not  in  use,  all  these  lengthened  mouth  parts  are  drawn  close 
together  and  bent  under  the  chin. 

The  modification  of  the  legs,  especially  of  the  hinder  pair,  is  to 
adapt  them  to  the  work  of  gathering  and  carrying  pollen.  The  shank 
{tibia)  is  broad  and  somewhat  hollowed  out  on  the  inner  surface,  and 
has  a  rim  of  stiff  hairs,  thus  forming  a  sort  of  basket  in  which  the 
pollen  is  piled  when  it  has  been  gathered  by  the  feet,  the  basal  joints 
of  which  are  enlarged  and  otherwise  especially  adapted  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  when  also  it  has  been  brushed  by  the  front  and  middle  legs 
from  other  parts  of  the  hairy  body  on  which  it  has  accumulated  in  the 
repeated  divings  of  the  insect  into  the  cup  of  flowers. 

The  sting  is  a  slender  tube  formed  of  three  blades,  which  may  be 
protruded  from  the  abdomen,  the  tip  of  which  has  a  needle-like  point 
and  in  some  species  is  barbed.  It  serves  not  only  as  an  ovipositor,  but 
at  the  will  of  the  insect,  as  a  weapon,  in  the  latter  case  conveying  into 
the  wound  made  by  it  a  minute  portion  of  an  acrid  fluid— the  pediceled 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  31 

abdomen  enabling  the  insect  to  thrust  its  sting  with  considerable  force. 
The  poison  is  of  an  acid  nature  and  may  be  neutralized  with  an  alkali. 
An  important  secretion  of  many  bees  is  the  product  known  as  wax. 
This  is  an  exudation  from  the  under  surface  of  the  abdomen,  which 
Prof.  Cook  describes  as  "a  solid  unctuous  substance  and  is,  as  shown 
by  its  chemical  composition,  a  fat-like  material.  *  *  *  It  is  formed  by 
the  secreting  membrane,  and  there  are  four  u  wax  pockets "  on  each 
side." 

[Fig.  u.]  Tne  front  legs  of  honey  bees  are  provided  with 

an  ingenious  contrivance  for  dressing  the  antennae. 
It  is  a  movable  spur  at  the  end  of  the  thigh  which 
closes  over  a  notch  in  the  base  of  the  tibia,  the 
antennae  being  drawn  through  the  aperture  thus 
formed.  Several  other  functions  for  this  contrivance 
have  been  suggested. 

In  consideration  of  a  difference  in  the  length  of 
the  mouth  parts,  the  bees  are  separated  into  two 
families : 

APIVJE — long-tongued  bees ;  and 

Front  Leg  of  Honey  Bee-  ANDRENIDJE— Short-tongued  bees. 

They  are  further  distinguished,  according  to  their  relations  with 
each  other,  as  Social,  Solitary  and  Parasitic  or  Cuckoo  bees. 

In  this  country  there  are  but  two  genera  of  social  bees,  namely, 
the  genus  Apis,  which  contains  but  one  species — melifica,  the  well- 
known  Hive  or  Honey  bee,  and  the  genus  Bombus,  containing  about 
fifty  species  of  the  almost  equally  well-known  Humble  or  Bumble  bees. 

All  social  bees,  as  well  as  other  insects  of  the  same  habit,  live  to- 
gether in  larger  or  smaller  communities,  and  have  a  regular  system  of 
government  and  labor — a  sort  of  ideal  communism — in  which  no  indi- 
vidual is  independent,  but  each  performs  certain  duties  for  the  common 
good.  Among  the  bees  each  colony  contains  three  sorts  of  individuals  : 
one  or  more  perfect  females,  or  queens,  which  are  the  mothers  of  the 
swarm ;  a  considerable  number  of  males  or  drones,  only  permitted  or 
developed  in  the  hive  or  nest  at  certain  seasons,  and  a  great  number  of 
smaller,  imperfect  females,  most  appropriately  termed  "workers,"  since 
upon  them  devolve  all  the  labors  of  the  colony. 

The  typical  species  of  this  group  is  the  Hive  bee,  celebrated  from 
time  immemorial  in  sacred  as  well  as  classic  literature,  for  the  delicious 
and  useful  products  of  its  industry,  honey  and  wax ;  for  its  intelligence 
and  mechanical  skill,  and  its  various  peculiar  developments  and  adapta- 
tions. Although  an  introduced  species,  it  is  now  thoroughly  natural- 

E— 3 


32  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

ized  in  this  country,  and  is  often  found  wild  in  forests,  where  it  inhabits 
hollow  trees.  It  is  said,  however,  that  it  never  occurs  far  from  the 
habitations  of  men,  which  fact  caused  the  Indians,  in  earlier  times,  to 
call  it  the  "  white  man's  fly."  It  may  be  considered,  indeed,  like  the 
silk-worm,  a  thoroughly  domesticated  insect;  and  though  so  familiar  to 
us,  the  study  of  its  habits  has  never  lost  its  fascination  nor  its  reward 
in  the  discovery  of  some  remarkable  attribute  or  power. 

The  form  of  the  worker  bee,  with  its  compact,  hairy  body,  its 
strong  wings,  its  large  but  widely  separated  eyes,  its  long  proboscis, 
and  its  sharp  sting — which  has  the  peculiarity  of  being  barbed,  and  of 
causing  the  death  of  its  user  by  its  loss,  if  thrust  too  vigorously  into 
the  skin  of  the  offender — is  familiar  to  every  one  who  has  ever  walked 
In  field  or  garden.  The  queen  bee  is  less  frequently  seen,  even  by  the 
careful  observer,  although,  where  glass  hives  are  used,  she  can  occasional- 
ly be  noticed  in  her  promenades  among  the  brood  cells.  She  has  a  much 
longer  body  than  the  worker,  and  her  proboscis  and  the  pollen  baskets 
on  the  hinder  tibiae  are  not  so  well  developed.  But  one  perfect  queen 
mother  is  permitted  in  a  hive  at  one  time,  and  when  the  colony  grows 
too  large  for  its  quarters,  the  mature  queen  goes  with  the  migrating 
swarm,  and  her  place  and  office  in  the  hive  is  assumed  by  one  of  the 
young  queens,  of  which,  in  the  swarming  season,  there  are  always  a 
number  at  the  point  of  development.  At  this  season,  too,  the  males  or 
drones  are  found  in  the  hive  in  greatest  numbers.  These  are  stouter 
bodied  than  the  worker  bees,  and  have  the  mouth  parts  and  legs  less  per- 
fectly developed,  while  the  eyes  are  larger  and  almost  meet  at  the  top  of 
the  head.  They  are  hatched  from  unimpregnated  eggs  laid  by  an  occa- 
sional fertile  worker,  or  by  an  unmated  queen,  or,  most  remarkable  of  all, 
by  a  fertile  queen,  when  she  chooses  to  allow  an  egg  to  pass  through  the 
oviduct  without  contact  with  the  sperm  cells  stored,  after  pairing,  in  her 
spermathica.  In  view  of  this  we  learn  that  the  queen  bee  possesses  a 
power  not  shared,  so  far  as  known,  by  any  other  animal,  viz.:  that  of  con- 
trolling the  sex  of  her  offspring  at  will.  The  queen  cells  are  more  than 
twice  the  size  of  those  built  for  the  rearing  of  workers,  and  are  placed 
here  and  there  on  the  edges  of  the  brood  comb  and  at  right  angles  to 
the  worker  cells.  The  egg  and  embryo  are  of  the  same  nature  as  those 
designed  to  produce  workers,  and  the  queens  or  perfect  females  result 
from  their  more  spacious  cells  and  the  more  nitrogenized  food  called 
"royal  jelly"  on  which  they  are  fed.  The  average  life  of  the  queen  is 
from  two  to  three  years,  and  instances  are  on  record  of  her  attaining 
the  age  of  five  years.  During  the  ordinary  period  of  life  she  lays  be- 
tween one  and  two  millions  of  eggs.  The  life  of  the  worker  seldom 
exceeds  eight  or  nine  months  and  that  of  the  drone  two  or  three. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  33 

The  period  of  development,  from  tlie  laying  of  the  egg  until  the  cap- 
ping of  the  cells  by  the  workers,  when  the  larvae  are  full  grown,  is  said 
is  said  to  be  eight  days.  During  this  time  they  are  regularly  fed  and 
attended  by  the  younger  workers,  on  which  devolves  the  office  of  nurses. 
After  the  cell  is  covered  the  larva  spins  around  itself  a  very  delicate 
cocoon  of  silk,  within  which  it  transforms  to  pupa.  The  latter  has  all 
the  members  and  the  form  of  the  mature  insect,  but  all  in  a  very  soft 
state  and  closely  appressed  to  the  body.  After  a  repose  of  about  three 
weeks  the  young  bees  emerge,  but  remain  in  the  hive  for  a  few  days, 
until  the  wings  and  other  members  are  sufficiently  hardened  to  be  ready 
for  duty.  The  hive  bee  is  not  torpid  during  winter,  although  many  of 
its  activities  are  suspended.  It  appropriates  large  quantities  of  honey 
and  generates  heat  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  atmospheric  cold. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  every  hot  weather  in  summer,  the  bees,  by  the 
vibrations  of  their  wings,  are  able  to  cool  and  ventilate  their  hives. 

Next  in  popular  interest  to  the  Honey  bee,  although  they  do  not 
contribute  directly  to  our  luxuries,  are  the  large,  clumsy,  noisy  Hum- 
ble bees.  They  are  the  largest  insects  in  their  tribe.  In  color  they 
are  black  or  black  banded  with  yellow,  and  the  entire  body  is  densely 
covered  with  short,  stiff  hair.  The  wings,  instead  of  being  transparent, 
are  of  a  purplish  or  smoky  hue.  The  tongue  and  maxillae  are  longer 
than  those  of  the  Honey  bee,  but  constructed  on  the  same  plan,  and 
the  added  length  enables  these  insects  to  extract  the  nectar  from  and 
thus  be  the  means  of  cross-fertilizing  many  flowers — among  them  the 
red  clover — in  which  the  sweets  are  inaccessible  to  the  former  species. 
The  jaws  are  broad  and  strong,  adapted  for  digging  in  the  earth.  The 
nests  of  the  largest  species,  Bombus  pennsylvanicus,  De  Geer,  are  usu- 
ally, if  not  invariably,  made  underground,  sometimes  in  little  caves 
made  for  the  purpose,  but  often  in  the  deserted  burrows  of  field  mice 
or  similar  cavities  for  the  sake  of  economizing  labor.  Only  the  queens 
or  fertile  females  live  over  winter,  and  in  the  spring  each  one  of  these 
founds  a  separate  colony.  Her  mode  of  procedure  is  as  follows : 
After  she  has  selected  and  prepared  her  home,  she  gathers  a  quantity 
of  pollen  and  honey,  which  she  kneads  into  a  mass,  and  upon  which  she 
deposits  a  number  of  eggs.  From  these  the  larvae  hatch  in  a  few  days 
and  eat  their  way  into  the  ball  of  bee-bread  in  different  directions, 
growing,  meantime,  very  rapidly.  The  rude  cells  thus  formed  are  from 
time  to  time  strengthened  and  extended  with  wax  by  the  mother  bee, 
until  the  larvae  are  sealed  up  for  transformation.  The  first  brood  are 
all  workers,  and  as  they  mature  the  queen  relinquishes  her  outside 
labors  to  them,  and  devotes  herself  exclusively  to  increasing  the  num- 
bers of  the  colony.  About  the  middle  of  the  season  drone  and  queen 


34  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

cells  are  built,  and  upon  the  emergence  of  the  occupants  the  two  sexes 
take  their  marriage  flight  together,  after  which,  upon  the  approach  of 
cold  weather,  the  colony  disbands,  and  all  except  the  perfect  females 
soon  perish.  The  latter  seek  shelter  about  buildings,  in  hollows  of 
trees,  and  possibly  some  return  to  the  nest  and  remain  dormant  through 
the  winter,  reviving  when  spring  returns  to  repeat  the  annual  process 
of  founding  new  colonies  and  reproducing  the  species. 

The  Humble  bees  are  far  less  skillful  and  exact  in  their  mechani- 
cal efforts  than  the  Honey  bee.  The  cells  are  oval  instead  of  hexago- 
nal, and  very  irregularly  placed,  and  honey  and  brood-comb  are  inter- 
mixed without  much  order.  The  honey  is  very  sweet,  but  somewhat 
rank-flavored,  and  in  many  persons  produces  headache,  while  the  wax 
is  dark,  coarse-grained  and  doughy. 

The  economy  of  the  Solitary  bees,  belonging  in  the  family  APID^E 
is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  social  species.  Each  pair,  or  more 
properly  each  female,  builds  and  provisions  a  separate  nest,  which  con- 
sists of  from  a  half-dozen  to  a  great  number  of  cells.  A  quantity  of 
food,  prepared  mainly  from  pollen,  is  stored  in  each  cell,  in  which  a 
single  egg  is  also  deposited.  The  cell  is  then  closed  and  the  mother 
insect  takes  no  further  care  for  her  young. 

The  most  interesting  and  conspicuous  of  the  Soliary  species  are 
the  Carpenter,  the  Mason,  the  Upholsterer  and  the  Leaf-cutter  bees. 

The  Carpenter  bees  (genus  Xylocopa)  contain  a  few  species  which 
rival  the  Humble  bee  in  size,  and  in  many  other  respects  closely  re- 
semble them.  They  may,  however,  be  distinguished  from  the  latter  at 
a  glance  by  the  smooth  top  of  the  abdomen,  which  is  entirely  of  a 
glossy  black.  Upon  closer  examination,  the  jaws  (mandibles)  are 
found  to  be  very  powerful  and  sharply  toothed.  The  basal  joint  of  the 
hind  feet  is  very  long  and  clothed  with  long  stiff  hairs,  appearing 
much  like  a  bottle  brush. 

These  bees  bore  holes  in  solid,  but  not  growing,  wood,  being  often 
found  at  work  in  the  cornices  of  houses  and  other  buildings,  in  which 
they  make  tunnels  a  foot  or  more  in  length.  The  entrance,  for  the 
depth  of  an  inch  or  more,  is  cut  direct  across  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
but  the  tunnel  proper  is  at  right  angles  to  this,  with  the  grain  of  the 
wood.  In  this,  numerous  cells  are  partitioned  off,  the  walls  being 
built  from  the  chips  or  raspings,  cemented  with  a  sticky  fluid  from  the 
mouth  of  the  little  artisan.  Beginning  at  the  end  farthest  from  the 
entrance,  each  cell  is  finished,  provided  with  a  quantity  of  the  usual 
bee  food,  and  the  egg  laid,  before  the  partition  wall  is  put  up.  It  fol- 
lows that  there  is  a  considerable  interval  of  time  between  the  com- 


OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  35 

pletion  of  the  first  and  last  cells,  and  whether  the  first  laid  eggs  are 
last  to  hatch,  or  whether,  upon  development,  the  young  bees  in  the 
more  remote  cells,  remain  quiet  until  those  nearest  the  entrance  open 
open  a  passage-way,  has  not  been  ascertained ;  but  at  all  events,  they 
do  not  emerge  until  their  younger  brothers  and  sisters  have  passed  out 
before  them. 

The  Mason  bees  (genus  OsmiaJ  are  a  group  of  small,  handsome 
bees  of  a  metallic  bluish  or  green  color.  They  derive  their  name  from 
their  habit  of  using  clay,  or  a  peculiar  mortar  which  they  prepare  from 
fine  gravel,  in  the  construction  of  their  variously  shaped  cells.  These 
may  often  be  found  plastered  against  the  sides  of  buildings,  upon  the 
branches  of  trees,  and  sometimes  even  upon  leaves,  or  within  oak-galls, 
separately,  or  in  small  groups.  They  are  rough  on  the  outside  but 
smooth  and  polished  within.  A  few  species  belonging  to  this  genus 
are  said  to  excavate  tunnels  in  soft  or  decayed  wood  in  which  to  pro- 
tect their  cells.  Dr.  Riley  says  of  Anthopora  sponsa,  an  allied  species, 
that  it  u  builds  mostly  in  steeply  inclined  or  perpendicular  clay-banks, 
and,  in  addition,  extends  a  tube  of  clay  from  the  entrance.  The  bur- 
row has  usually  two  branches,  which  decline  about  an  inch  from  the 
surface  of  the  bank,  and  (in  them)  six  or  eight  cells  are  arranged  end  to 
end.  By  means  of  saliva  the  inside  of  the  cell  is  rendered  impervious 
to  the  moisture  of  the  honey  and  bee-bread  stored  in  it  for  the  young." 

The  Upholsterer  bees  (genus  Ceratina)  resemble  the  Mason  bees 
in  form  and  color.  They  build  their  nests  on  a  plan  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  Carpenter  bees,  but  instead  of  boring  into  solid  wood  they  se- 
lect that  which  is  soft  from  decay,  or  confine  themselves  to  the  pithy 
stems  of  such  shrubs  as  the  elder  or  blackberry,  or  the  stalks  of  the 
more  robust  weeds.  The  walls  of  the  cells  are  lined  and  the  partitions 
made  of  a  delicate  silken  web — the  "  upholstery  "  from  which  they 
derive  their  popular  name. 

The  Leaf- cutter  or  Taylor  bees  (genus  MegachileJ,  also  in  most 
instances  excavate  the  pithy  stems  of  shrubs  in  which  to  build  their 
nests.  In  other  cases  they  select  tough  leaves,  which  they  contrive  to 
roll  into  cylinders  and  fasten  firmly  for  the  protection  of  the  cells. 
Within  these  tunnels  they  prepare  a  number  of  cells,  forming  the 
partitions  and  covering  the  walls  with  sections  of  delicate  leaves  or 
of  the  petals  of  flowers.  One  species,  N.  centuncularis,  is  a  serious 
pest  to  the  flower  garden,  always,  with  rare  good  taste,  selecting  the 
most  delicately  colored  of  the  roses,  geraniums  and  other  choice  flow- 
ers for  her  curtains  and  coverlets.  This  is  a  rather  stout,  short-bodied 
bee  of  a  dull  black  color,  banded  with  yellowish  gray.  The  head  is 
broad  and  the  scissors-like  jaws  are  very  strong,  and  the  swiftness 


36  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

with  which  they  cut  out  the  circular  pieces  of  leaf  or  petal  is  something 
astonishing.  The  cells  are  over  half  an  inch  in  length,  nine  or  ten  in  a 
row,  placed  end  to  end.  As,  in  the  latitude  of  St.  Louis,  these  bees 
may  be  seen  at  work  from  May  until  .September,  there  are  doubtless 
several  broods  in  a  season. 

Bees  belonging  in  the  family  Andrenidce  are  distinguished  by  hav- 
ing the  tongue  short  and  rather  broad,  and  the  most  characteristic 
genus  (Andrena)  can  be  recognized  by  a  lock  of  long  curled  hair  on 
each  trocanter.  The  colors  are  dark,  banded  with  dull  red.  This  fam- 
ily of  bees  includes  a  large  number  of  small,  prettily  colored  insects 
which  make  their  nests  in  tunnels  excavated  horizontally  in  banks  or 
perpendicularly  in  level  ground.  The  tunnels  commonly  consist  of  a 
straight  gallery  into  which  the  separate  cells  open  on  all  sides. 

Many  species  of  both  Apidas  and  Andrenidce  are  sorely  annoyed 
by  Parasitic  or  Cuckoo  bees.  These  build  no  nests  for  themselves, 
but  when  one  of  them  discovers  a  Carpenter  or  Mason  or  other  bee  at 
work,  she  constantly  hovers  about  the  spot,  and  as  fast  as  the  cells  are 
completed  she  slips  in  and  deposits  her  eggs,  always  choosing  her  time 
when  the  builder  is  absent.  The  larvoefrom  these  eggs  usually  kill  the 
rightful  tenants  of  the  cells,  or  the  latter  perish  from  starvation  be- 
cause the  intruder  has  devoured  the  lion's  share  of  the  food.  A  few 
of  the  Cuckoo  bees  are  rather  guests  than  parasites,  living  very  ami- 
cably with  their  hosts,  on  whose  bounty  their  young  are  reared.  This 
is  the  case  especially  with  those  that  choose  their  homes  with  the  so- 
cial species.  A  certain  large  species  of  ApaiJius  is  said  to  live  in  this 
way  in  the  nests  of  Humble  bees,  and  the  mature  insects,  which  are 
similar  in  appearance,  are  often  seen  together,  harmoniously  sipping 
nectar  from  adjoining  flowers. 

The  habits  of  all  wild  bees  are  extremely  interesting  subjects  for 
study,  and  have  not  by  any  means  been  thoroughly  investigated. 


OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  37 


CHAPTER  X. 
Order  HYMENOPTERA.      Section  ACULEATA. 

TRUE   WASPS    AND   DIGGER  WASPS. 

IFig.  15.] 


Digger- wasp,  stigus  speciosus. 

The  True  wasps  are  termed  DIPLOPIERA  (double  wings),  because 
when  not  flying  the  upper  wings  are  always  longitudinally  folded. 
This  manner  of  carrying  the  wings  is  the  most  obvious  structural 
distinction  between  this  group  and  the  Fossorial  or  Digging  wasps. 
In  this  tribe  of  insects  the  body  wall,  or  external  envelope,  is  harder, 
and,  as  a  rule,  smoother,  than  that  of  bees,  although  some  species  have 
parts  of  the  body  clothed  with  a  velvety  pubescence.  The  neck  is  very 
short  and  the  head  wide  at  the  top,  giving  a  somewhat  triangular  shape 
to  the  face.  The  jaws  are  broad  and  strong,  with  sharp  teeth,  while  the 
inner  jaws  and  tongue,  though  shorter  than  those  of  bees,  are  not  so 
flexible,  still  admit  of  the  extraction  of  nectar  from  the  more  open 
flower  cups.  Both  pairs  of  palpi  are  well  developed,  and  on  each  side 
of  the  tongue  is  a  similar  supplementary  organ  called  a  parraglossa. 

The  eyes  are  large  and  hollowed  out  in  the  middle  (see  Fig  2,  pt. 
1st),  and  the  ocelli  are  unusually  prominent.  The  legs  are  mostly 
smooth  and  cylindrical,  but  the  shanks  are  provided  with  long,  thorn- 
like  spurs,  and  the  joints  of  the  feet  are  also  spiny.  The  females  have 
a  formidable  sting,  but  the  males,  as  with  nearly  all  other  insects,  are 
unarmed. 

The  larvae  are  much  like  those  of  bees,  except  that  they  are  some- 
what larger  on  the  anterior  end.  They  are  reared  in  cells  of  paper  or 
mud,  for  wasps  are  incapable  of  excreting  wax,  and  are  fed  mainly  on 
animal  food-^such  as  the  soft  bodies  of  flies,  Iarva3,  bits  of  fresh  meat 
and  the  like — few,  if  any,  being  fed  on  the  honey  and  pollen  that  form 
the  sole  nourishment  of  the  mature  insects. 


38  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Like  the  bees,  this  tribe  of  wasps  has  its  social  and  its  solitary 

species. 

The  best  representative  of  the  former  is  the  Bald-faced  Hornet 
(Vespa  maculata,  Linn.,)  an  insect  with  whose  large  gray  paper  nests— 
often  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter — and  whose  fierce  sting  every 
school-boy  is  familiar.  The  habits  of  this  species  are  much  like  those 
of  the  Humble  bees.  The  perfect  females,  only,  hibernate,  and  when 
the  spring  is  well  advanced  each  one  forms  a  few  cells,  mainly  from  a 
glutinous  secretion  from  the  mouth,  but  apparently  mingled  with  a 
little  woody  fiber.  These  are  attached  by  a  slender  pedicel,  with  the 
opening  downward,  to  a  branch  of  some  low  tree  or  similar  and  secluded 
support.  The  eggs  are  glued  into  the  cells,  and  the  young  larvae,  with 
heads  down,  are  at  first  fastened  in  the  same  manner,  but  as  they  grow 
the  swelling  of  the  segments  next  the  head  serves  to  keep  them  in 
position. 

These  first  larvae  speedily  develop  into  workers  and  release  the 
queen  from  her  labors.  The  tier  of  cells  is  added  to  on  all  sides,  and 
over  it  is  built  an  umbrella-like  roof,  the  materials  being  mainly  fibers 
of  weather-beaten  wood,  collected  from  old  fences  and  unpainted  build- 
ings. This  is  masticated  and  mingled  with  the  fluids  from  the  mouth, 
and  when  thinly  spread  dries  into  a  strong  water-proof  paper. 

As  the  season  advances  and  workers  increase,  successive  tiers  of 
cells  are  built,  attached  by  strong  silken  pillars  to  those  above,  with  gal- 
leries between,  through  which  the  wasps  can  easily  move  when  caring 
for  the  young.  The  outer  envelope  too  is  enlarged  and  brought  down 
at  the  sides,  and  finally  made  to  completely  enclose  the  nest.  Late  in 
summer  a  brood  of  perfect  males  and  females  is  produced,  and  upon 
the  approach  of  cold  weather  the  ingenious  little  home  is  deserted,  the 
mature  insects,  it  is  said,  first  stinging  to  death  any  larvae  or  pupae  that 
remain,  dragging  them  ruthlessly  from  their  cells  and  casting  them  to 
the  ground.  . 

Some  species  of  the  genus  Vespa — for  example,  the  smaller  and 
more  brightly  colored  "  Yellow  jackets  "—have  their  homes,  like  the 
Humble  bees,  underground. 

The  nests  of  the  species  belonging  to  the  genus  Polistes  consist  of 
a  single  tier  of  from  ten  to  twenty  or  thirty  cells,  built  in  some  shel- 
tered situation  and  without  any  external  enclosing  wall.  The  species 
are  more  slender  in  form  than  the  hornets,  and  are  mostly  of  rust-red 
or  brown  colors.  From  their  habit  of  attaching  their  clusters  of  open, 
gray  paper  cells  under  the  cornices  or  window  sills  of  our  dwellings, 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


39 


and  from  the  familiarity  with  which  they  enter  our  rooms,  especially  in 
the  autumn  when  the  colonies  are  disbanding,  scarcely  any  one  can  fail 
to  have  more  or  less  knowledge  of  their  appearance  and  habits. 

[Fig.  16.]  The  few  solitary  species  belonging 

to  the  group  of  "Double-wings" 
differ  more  in  habit  than  in  struc- 
ture from  the  social  species.  No 
so-called  "neuters"  or  workers 
exist  among  them.  Each  mother 
wasp  builds  her  own  series  of 
cells,  stores  each  with  the  requi- 
site amount  of  food,  carefully 
yel"  places  her  egg  on  the  side  of  the 
cell,  seals  it  up  and  leaves  the  larva  to  develop  without  any  material 
supervision  or  care. 

Among  the  most  interesting  of  these  is  a  small  species,  of  a  black 
color,  banded  and  ornamented  with  pale  yellow,  which  has  a  great  par- 
tiality for  building  its  mud  cells  (for  these  solitary  species  do  not  make 
paper,  but  are  all  masons)  in  key-holes  and  crevices  indoors.  On  one 
occasion  which  came  under  my  observation,  one  of  these  wasps  took 
possession  of  some  spools  of  thread  standing  on  the  sill  of  an  open 
window,  and  built  her  cells  in  the  spindle  holes,  as  figured  above.  As 
fast  as  one  spool  was  filled  another  was  supplied,  and  in  the  course  of 
three  days  nine  spools,  averaging  three  cells  to  a  spool,  had  been  com- 
pleted. The  food  stored  consisted  of  various  small  caterpillars,  includ- 
ing several  larvae  of  the  Codling  moth,  which  had  been  stung  with  suf- 
ficient severity  to  produce  paralysis  but  not  death. 

The  cells  were  scarcely  more  than  half  an  inch  in  depth,  but  into 
this  small  space  six  or  seven  or  more  larvae  would  be  crowded,  packed 
with  a  deftness  that  was  impossible  of  imitation  by  human  fingers.  The 
wasp  larvae  developed  rapidly,  the  young  wasps  appearing  in  less  than 
two  weeks. 

The  Digging  wasps  (tribe  FOSSORES)  contain  the  largest  and  most 
beautiful  insects  in  the  Order.  (See  Fig.  15.)  Most  of  the  species  are 
easily  distinguished  from  the  True  wasps  by  their  spiny  legs,  their 
oval  or  roundish  eyes,  and  especially  by  the  wings  not  being  folded  in 
repose.  All  the  species  are  solitary  in  their  habits,  and  as  a  matter  of 
course  only  males  and  perfect  females  are  developed.  A  few  of  the 
species  bore  holes  in  dry  or  decayed  wood,  or  excavate  the  stems  of 
pithy  plants,  in  which  to  construct  their  cells,  while  others,  like  the 
Mud-dauber  (Pelopwus),  build  a  cluster  of  pipe-like  cells  plastered 
against  a  beam  in  some  shed  or  out-building.  The  great  majority,  how- 


40  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

ever,  burrow  into  the  earth,  especially  in  sandy  or  gravelly  situations, 
loosening  the  soil  with  their  strong  jaws  and  scrabbling  it  out  with 
incredible  rapidity  with  their  spiny  legs. 

A  separate  hole  is  dug,  six  or  seven  or  more  inches  deep,  for  each 
egg,  at  the  bottom  of  which  the  latter  is  laid,  after  the  nest  has  been 
provisioned  with  one  large  or  several  smaller  insects  or  spiders  reduced 
to  torpor  by  the  poisoned  lance  of  the  wasp.  The  shaft  is  then  filled 
up,  the  earth  smoothed  over,  and  even  bits  of  gravel  so  placed  as  to 
completely  obliterate  all  trace  of  the  excavation. 

The  Wood  wasps  (family  ORABRONID^E),  which  bore  into  wood,  feed 
their  larvae  on  plant  lice,  a  great  number  of  these  tiny  insects  being 
required  to  provision  a  single  cell.  Species  of  the  genus  Ammophila— 
easily  recognized  by  the  very  spiny  legs  and  the  long,  slender  pedicel 
gradually  widening  backward  into  the  rather  small  abdomen — provide 
each  nest  with  but  one  large  caterpillar. 

The  elegant  wasp  known  as"  the  ''Handsome  Digger"  (Stizus  specio- 
BUS,  Drury),  represented  in  Fig.  15,  a  very  large  species  of  a  black  color 
gaily  banded  and  otherwise  marked  with  yellow,  provisions  its  nest 
with  harvest  flies  (Cicadas),  making  use  of  the  seventeen-year  species 
when  they  appear,  as  well  as  of  the  annual  "drummers."  A  still  larger 
species  (Pompilus  formosus,  Say),  of  a  dark  blue  color,  common  in  the 
Southwestern  States,  is  called  the  "Tarantula- killer,"  because  it  makes 
the  large  and  venemous  Tarantula,  the  most  formidable  of  our  spiders, 
its  especial  prey.  The  Digger  wasps  are  a  great  terror  to  the  insects 
upon  which  they  prey,  the  latter  seeming  to  recognize  them  instinct- 
ively as  enemies  from  which  there  is  no  escape.  Observers  have  no- 
ticed that  even  the  Tarantula  above  mentioned,  large  and  savage  as  it 
is,  is  seized  with  a  violent  tremor  and  appears  to  lose  all  courage  as 
soon  as  it  finds  itself  pursued  by  the  fierce  Pompilus. 

A  small  black  wasp  belonging  in  the  genus  Tiphia,  common  in  the 
north  and  west,  is  distinguished  as  one  of  the  few  insect  enemies  of 
the  destructive  White  grub,  its  tough,  brown,  silken  cocoons  being 
frequently  turned  out  by  the  plow  in  the  spring  from  meadows  and 
corn  land. 

All  wasps,  whether  social  or  solitary,  may  be  considered  among 
beneficial  species,  for  although  the  perfect  insects  feed  only  on  honey 
and  pollen,  yet  in  providing  for  their  young  they  destroy  vast  numbers 
of  leaf  and  fruit-feeding  larvse  as  well  as  various  grasshoppers,  cicadas 
and  flies.  In  preparing  these  insects  to  nourish  their  young  the  attend- 
ing wasps  of  the  social  species  thoroughly  masticate  and  partly  digest 
them  before  they  regurgitate  the  pulp  into  the  open  mouths  of  the 
larvae.  The  Solitary  species,  as  we  have  seen,  have  a  provision  for 


OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  41 

rendering  the  insects  upon  which  their  young  are  to  feed  helpless  to 
escape  or  resist,  and  yet  not  fatally  injured  so  that  they  would  spoil 
before  being  required  for  food. 


CHAPTER  XL 
Order  HYMENOPTERA.     Section  ACULEATA. 


Worker  Ant.  Formica. 

All  the  typical  ants  (composing  the  tribe  HETEROGTYNA)  are  social 
insects  which  rank  next  to  and  in  some  respects  exceed  the  bees  in 
their  manifestations  of  ingenuity  and  intelligence. 

A  colony — termed  a  formicarium — as  in  the  case  of  other  social  in- 
sects, always  contains  three  and  occasionally  four  distinct  forms,  males, 
females,  workers,  and  sometimes  soldiers  or  some  other  distinct  class. 
The  males  and  females  at  a  certain  period  in  their  development  acquire 
wings  and  arise  from  the  nest.  After  sporting  together  for  a  time  in  the 
open  air  the  females  return  to  the  nest  or  perhaps  originate  new  col- 
onies, and  divest  themselves  of  their  wings,  as  these  appendages  in  the 
retired  life  they  henceforth  lead,  would  be  not  only  useless  but  cumber- 
some. The  male  ants,  which  are  much  smaller  than  the  females,  hav- 
ing once  left  the  nest  never  return  to  it,  and  are  usually  short-lived. 
The  workers  and  soldiers,  which  are  imperfectly  developed  females, 
never  acquire  wings, and  differ  from  the  perfect  individuals  in  having 
the  joints  of  the  thorax  less  compactly  united,  and  the  basal  and  some- 
times the  succeeding  joint  of  the  abdomen  formed  on  top,  into  a  sort  of 
scale  or  node.  The  head  is  generally  more  or  less  triangular,  the  anten- 
nae are  long  and  elbowed,  and  seem  to  be  the  organs  of  communication 


42  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

between  the  individuals  of  a  colony.  The  jaws  are  strong  and  sharply 
notched,  except  in  the  slave-making  species,  in  which  they  become 
almost  useless  as  tools. 

Some  species  are  armed  with  a  sting,  and  all  secrete  a  peculiar  acid, 
called  formic  acid,  which  has  very  characteristic  properties,  and  pro- 
duces a  slight  burning  sensation  upon  the  skin.  This  acid  is  attractive 
to  certain  insects  which  penetrate  to  the  ants'  nests  to  obtain  it  from 
their  bodies.  It  is  thought  to  have  medicinal  qualities,  and  in  Switzer- 
land a  highly  prized  vinegar  is  made  from  it  by  boiling  the  insects  in 
water.  It  is  said  that  the  lumbermen  in  our  northern  forests,  in  the 
event  of  a  failure  of  their  fruit  supply,  use  these  acid  insects  as  a  sub- 
stitute. 

Ants  build  their  formicaries  in  various  ways,  according  to  their 
species.  Some  erect  conical  dwellings  above  ground  from  mortar  of 
clay  or  sand ;  others,  including  a  majority  of  the  species,  burrow  into 
the  earth;  while  others  still  inhabit  hollow  trees  or  excavate  decayed 
stumps  and  logs.  The  nests  are  marvels  of  mechanical  art,  containing 
store-rooms,  nurseries,  galleries  and  other  compartments,  and  are  some- 
times several  stories  in  height,  each  story  being  supported  upon  pillars, 
arches  and  cross-beams. 

Not  only  are  these  little  creatures  skillful  artisans,  but  they  seem 
to  have  quite  complex  social  and  governmental  systems.  When  about 
to  make  war  on  a  neighboring  colony,  they  sally  forth  in  regular  col- 
umns, and  appear  to  have  a  corps  of  officers  who  take  turns  in  direct- 
ing the  movements.  Several  species  of  red  and  yellow  ants  capture 
and  enslave  various  black  species.  The  slaves  are  obtained  by  making 
war  on  the  "  negro  ants  ;"  and  after  the  victory  which  they  gain  in  a 
majority  of  the  battles,  they  carry  off  the  pupae  of  the  vanquished 
colony  and  rear  them  in  their  own  nurseries.  When  the  captives  are 
mature,  they  do  not  attempt  to  escape,  but  seem  entirely  willing  to 
procure  food  for  their  owners  and  to  serve  them  in  any  capacity  re- 
quired. 

The  larvae  of  ants  are  short,  white  cylindrical  grubs,  with  small 
heads  which  are  bent  forward.  These  larvae  receive  the  most  assiduous 
care  from  the  workers.  They  are  daily  carried  about  to  those  parts  of 
the  nest  where  the  temperature  will  best  promote  their  growth.  When 
the  weather  is  pleasant,  they  are  brought  in  the  morning  to  the  upper 
apartments,  that  they  may  receive  the  benefit  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  at 
evening  they  are  again  removed  to  the  lower  chambers  where  there  is 
less  exposure  and  more  warmth.  The  food  with  which  they  are  sup- 
plied must  first  be  chewed  and  submitted  to  a  process  of  partial  diges- 
tion by  the  nurses  before  it  is  fed  to  them,  and  in  all  other  ways  they 
are  the  objects  of  the  tenderest  interest  and  attention. 


OUTLINES    OE   ENTOMOLOGY.  43 

In  case  of  an  accident  to  the  nest,  the  safety  of  the  larvae  and 
pupae  seems  to  be  the  first  consideration,  and  the  workers  inay  be  seen 
running  hither  and  thither  in  great  distress  with  their  delicate  white 
charges  in  their  jaws,  and  which  they  will  sacrifice  their  lives  in  the 
effort  to  protect. 

Ants  feed  upon  a  variety  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  and 
while  very  fond  of  sweets,  are  not,  like  bees  and  wasps,  restricted  in 
their  mature  state,  to  a  diet  of  pollen  and  nectar.  Some  species  are 
quite  valuable  as  scavengers,  rapidly  disposing  of  carrion. 

A  very  good  way  of  obtaining  a  perfectly  clean  skeleton  of  a  bird 
or  other  small  animal  is  to  place  it  near  a  large  ants'  nest.  Every  par- 
ticle of  flesh  will  soon  be  removed  in  the  neatest  manner.  There  are 
no  species  injurious  to  vegetation  north  of  Florida,  but  in  that  State  a 
certain  species  (Solonopsis  Xyloni,  McO)  is  said  by  Mr.  Henry  Hubbard 
to  "  seriously  injure  the  orange  by  gnawing  away  the  bark  and  causing 
an  exudation  of  gum  which  seems,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  to 
become  one  of  its  principal  sources  of  food  supply."  In  other  sections 
of  the  South  this  species  makes  reparation  for  such  injuries  by  its 
attacks  on  the  cotton-worm,  of  which  there  is  no  room  to  doubt  that 
it  kills  great  numbers. 

The  Leaf  cutters  are  mainly  Mexican  and  South  American  species, 
and  are  often  very  destructive  to  the  foliage  of  the  orange  and  other 
valuable  trees.  Among  these  appears  the  singular  form  of  workers, 
distinguished  as  "  soldiers,"  with  enormously  large  heads  and  other 
peculiar  adaptations.  These  are  the  protectors  of  the  nest  in  time  of 
danger,  and  take  no  part  in  other  labors.  Dr.  McCook  has  also  de- 
scribed most  entertainingly  the  habits  of  the  Agricultural  ant,  which 
clears  the  ground  around  its  nest,  sows  it  to  a  sort  of  grass  which  it  in  due 
time  harvests,  storing  the  seeds  in  its  nest.  In  Texas  and  Mexico  also 
occurs  another  very  interesting  species  whose  habits  were  investigated 
and  published  by  the  same  gentleman,  viz.,  the  Honey  ant.  In  the 
formicaries  of  this  species,  certain  workers  have  the  power  of  secreting 
honey  from  their  food.  This  collects  in  the  abdomen  until  the  latter 
becomes  enormously  enlarged  and  the  insect  is  incapable  of  dragging 
the  heavy  weight,  and  has  to  be  fed  by  the  less  distended  workers. 
This  honey  is  not  disgorged  into  cells,  but  is  taken  direct  from  the 
insect  by  the  other  inmates  of  the  nest,  and  when  the  secretion  is 
entirely  exhausted  the  creature  perishes. 

Instead  depending  on  members  of  their  own  colony  for  their 
sweets,  some  of  our  indigenous  species  domesticate  in  their  nests  cer- 
tain root-feeding  plant  lice  (Aphides),  which  have  been  called  the  "ants7 
cows,"  because  of  the  sweet  fluid  which  they  yield  from  their  nectar 
tubes  when  caressed  by  the  ant's  antennas.  Indeed,  all  these  nectar- 


44 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 


yielding  aphids  are  great  favorites  with  the  ants,  which  take  various 
measures  for  their  protection,  even  when  they  cannot  transport  them 
to  their  nests. 

The  great  majority  of  our  ants  belong  in  the  genus  Formica.  These 
have  no  sting,  but  will  sometimes  bite  severely  if  they  have  access  to 
the  tender  skin.  They  have  but  one  node  between  the  pedicel  and  ab- 
domen. Our  largest  species  is  Formica 
pennsylvanica, which  is  black,  and  three-fifths 
of  an  inch  long.  It  is  a  wood- borer  and  may 
often  be  found  in  hollow  trees  and  decaying 
stumps.  Formica  sanguinea,  a  medium-sized 
red  species,  is  the  most  common  slave, 
making  ant. 

Ants  belonging  to  the  genus  Myrmica 
are  mostly  small,  bright-colored  species, 
with  two  nodes  or  scales  between  the  abdo- 
men proper  and  the  thorax.  One  of  the 
species,  Myrmica  molesta,  Say,  is  the  small 
"red  ant,"  often  so  troublesome  to  house- 
Red  Ant  (Myrmica),  greatly  enlarged,  keepers. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
Order  HYMENOPTERA .    Section  TEREBRANTIA. 

PARASITES   AND   GALL-FLIES. 

[Fig.  19.] 


Ichneumon  Fly  (after  Riley) . 

This  division  of  the  H YMENOPTER A  includes  both  the  species  that 
are  of  most  service  to  man,  and  those  that  are  most  directly  injurious. 
They  are  grouped  in  the  same  section  because  in  all,  the  ovipositor  is 
a  piercer,  adapted  for  penetrating  either  hard  or  soft  substances.  It  is 


OUTLINES   OF    ENTOMOLOGY.  45 

usually  a  conspicuous  appendage  of  the  abdomen,  and  is  of  a  variety  of 
singular  forms,  but  is  not  connected  with  any  poison  gland,  and  while 
that  of  some  species  may  inflict  a  sharp  prick,  it  is  in  no  case  a  true  sting. 

Among  the  PIERCERS  are  found  those  species  that  vary  most  from 
what  is  considered  the  type  of  the  Order,  many  of  which,  in  points  of 
their  general  structure,  and  in  the  forms  of  their  larvae,  seem  to  be 
closely  allied  to  the  Lepidoptera. 

The  Piercers  (TEREBRANTIA)  are  very  conveniently  separated 
intotwo  tribes  : 

1.  Insect  eaters  (  ENTOMOPHAGA  ),  Parasitic  flies,  and  also  Gall- 
flies, and  a  very  few  other  vegetable  feeders. 

2.  Plant  eaters  (PHYTOPHAGA),  Saw-flies  and  Wood-borers     The 
first  tribe  includes  a  vast  number  of  species,  some  with  bodies,  includ- 
ing the  ovipositor,  two  inches  or  more  in  length,  others  so  minute  that 
their  different  parts  can  only  be  distinguished  with  a  lens,  the  office  of 
all  of  which  seems  to  be  to  keep  in  check  those  members  of  its  class 
which  prey  upon  vegetation,  and  which,  but  for  them,  would  multiply 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  threaten  extinction  to  many  of  our  most  valu- 
able food  plants. 

The  Parasitic  species  may  be  readily  separated  into  three  families, 
ICHNEUMON IDM,  PROCTOTRYPID^E  and  CHALCIDID^E.  Some  authors 
separate  various  species  from  these  groups,  for  which  they  define  sev- 
eral more  families,  bat  those  mentioned  include  all  the  more  important 
species. 

Among  the  members  of  the  first-named  family  may  be  found  some 
very  large  species,  a  great  number  that  are  of  medium  size — with  a 
wing  expanse  of  from  one-third  to  one-half  inch — and  some  that  are 
extremely  small.  The  typical  Ichneumon  flies  have  long  and  rather 
slender  bodies,  usually  terminated  by  an  exserted  ovipositor,  which  is 
composed  of  several  thread-like  stylets,  and  which  varies  in  length  from 
three  or  four  inches  in  Thalessa,  to  a  scarcely  noticeable  point  at  the 
tip  of  the  abdomen,  as  in  Microgaster. 

The  head  is  somewhat  square,  the  antennae  thread-like  and  many- 
jointed  ;  both  pairs  of  palpi  are  well  developed,  but  the  biting  organs 
are  rather  small  and  weak.  The  thorax  is  compact,  but  the  different 
parts  are  often  outlined  by  deep  grooves.  The  veining  of  the  wings 
is  much  like  that  in  bees  and  wasps,  but  the  membrane  is  more  delicate 
and  transparent.  The  legs  are  smooth  and  cylindrical.  These  insects 
lay  their  eggs  in  or  upon  the  bodies  of  other  insects,  usually  caterpillars, 
piercing  the  skins  with  their  sharply  pointed  ovipositors.  Sometimes 
but  a  single  egg  is  laid ;  in  other  cases  the  dorsal  surface  is  thickly 


46  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

punctured  and  a  great  number  of  the  little  grub-like  larvae  hatch  and 
burrow  back  and  forth  in  the  fatty  tissue  of  their  victim,  avoiding  at 
first  its  vital  parts ;  and  when  it  is  fatally  injured,  though  perhaps  it 
[Fig.  20.]  does  not  die  for  several  days,  they  emerge  in  an 

erect  position  and  cover  the  back  of  the  cater- 
pillar with  their  email  white  cocoons  attached 
r^w'thVcoonsol  **• tbe  lower  end  and  standing  up  like  grains  of 

pastes  (after  Riley).    Color,     ^   flU    Qver    jt      M()gt    of    the    largef    gpecies 

weave  their  cocoons  inside  the  body  of  their  victim.  The  internal 
parasitic  larvae  are  said  to  breathe  through  branchia  similar  to  those  of 
water  insects,  which  are  situated  at  one  end  of  the  body  and  communi- 
cate with  the  air  tubes  of  the  insect  they  infest. 

The  large  species  represented  in  Fig.  19  is  Opihon  Macrurum,  Linn. 
The  abdomen  broadens  toward  the  tip  and  is  compressed  laterally. 
The  entire  body  and  wing- veins  are  of  a  honey-yellow  color.  It  quite 
frequently  enters  our  lighted  rooms  on  summer  nights,  and  if  taken 
into  the  hand  will  administer  so  sharp  a  thrust  with  its  ovipositor  that 
the  captor  involuntarily  releases  it.  It  is  parasitic  on  the  large  cater- 
pillars belonging  to  the  family  of  our  native  silk  worms. 

The  PBOCTROTRYPID^S  is  a  family  of  exceedingly  small  flies,  most 
of  which  are  "  Egg  parasites."  Their  bodies  are  rather  slender  and  the 
wings  almost  without  veins,  but  in  some  species  are  fringed  with  fine 
hairs  around  the  edges.  They  breed,  as  a  rule,  in  the  eggs  of  larger 
insects,  of  which  they  destroy  great  numbers.  The  family  of  the 
CHALCIDID^E  is  also  composed  mainly  of  very  small  species,  some  of 
which  also  breed  in  eggs,  but  usually  in  the  bodies  of  other  insects, 
especially  in  those  of  Aphides.  They  are  often  of  beautiful  metallic 
colors.  The  antennae  are  elbowed  and  have  from  six  to  fourteen 
joints.  A  considerable  number  have  the  thighs  of  the  hinder  legs 
very  much  thickened  for  jumping.  The  wings  have  very  few  veins  and 
no  enclosed  cells.  In  the  male  the  abdomen  is  seven-jointed,  while  in 
the  female  it  has  only  six  joints.  Except  in  a  very  few  species  the  ovi- 
positor is  entirely  withdrawn  into  the  body  except  when  in  use.  They  are 
not  infrequently  parasitic  upon  other  parasites,  and,  therefore,  to  be  reck' 
oned  among  injurious  species.  In  this  group,  also,  we  find  the  de- 
structive "  Joint-worm  flies"  (Isosoma  hordii  Har.  tritici  and  I.  grander 
Biley),  which  puncture  the  stalks  of  small  grain  at  the  joints  in  de- 
positing their  eggs,  the  larvae  afterward  feeding  upon  the  sap,  and 
where  they  are  numerous,  preventing  the  growth  of  the  stalk  and  the 
filling  of  the  head.  Mr.  F.  M.  Webster  of  Indiana  made  the  discovery 
that  many  of  the  females  of  I.  grande  were  wingless.  As  most  of  these 
insects  hibernate  in  the  straw,  burning  the  latter  after  threshing  and 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  47 

also  burning  the  stubble  is  the  best  preventive  of  their  increase.  This 
fly  differs  very  slightly  in  structure  from  the  parasitic  species. 

One  family  included  in  this  group — the  Cynipidal — while  resem- 
bling the  Chalcids  very  closely  in  structure,  are  vegetable  feeders, 
causing  on  Oak,  Rose  and  other  woody  plants,  the  singular  fruit-like 
and  nut-like  growths  called  "  galls."  The  females  differ  from  the  para- 
sitic CHALCIDID^:  in  their  larger  size,  and  in  the  shorter  and  more 
compressed  abdomen  and  in  the  notch  on  the  under  side  of  the  latter. 
The  antennae,  also,  are  straight  and  slender,  with  the  joints  all  equal. 

The  abnormal  plant  growth  is  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the  depo- 
sition of  a  minute  quantity  of  a  peculiar  fluid,  along  with  the  egg,  by 
the  parent  fly,  the  tissue  resulting  forming  a  more  suitable  kind  of 
food  for  the  larvae  than  ordinary  wood  fiber  or  leaves.  The  gall  makers 
are  all  more  or  less  injurious  to  the  plants  they  attack,  but  one  species 
makes  a  sort  of  reparation  in  producing  on  a  European  oak  the  "  nut 
galls,77  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  best  ink. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
Order  HYMENOPTEKA.     Section  TEREBRANTIA. 

SAW-FLIES   AND    HORN  TAILS. 

[Fig.  21.] 


Native  Currant  Saw-fly. 

Colors—  (a)  gresn  and  black  ;  (b)  black  and  honey-yellow. 
Native  Currant- worm— Pristophora  grosularia—&fieT  Riley. 

The  insects  of  this  Order,  included  among  the  true  Plant-eaters 
(PHYTOPHAGA),  differ  very  much  in  all  stages  of  their  development  from 
those  described  in  preceding  chapters. 

The  perfect  insects  have  rather  heavy  bodies,  upon  which  the  three 
principal  divisions  are  not  so  distinct  as  in  bees,  wasps  and  ichneu- 

E— 4 


48  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

mons.  The  head  is  broad,  connected  with  the  thorax  by  a  very  short 
neck,  and  the  abdomen  is  sessile:  i.  e.,  joins  the  thorax  by  a  wide  base 
instead  of  a  slender  stalk. 

The  larvae  are  much  more  independent  than  those  of  the  higher 
families  of  the  Order.  They  are  not  confined  to  cells  or  chambers,  and 
the  only  provision  made  for  them  by  the  parent  insect  is  the  insertion 
of  her  eggs  in  the  kind  of  leaves  or  wood  which  her  young  require  for 
food.  They  subsist  entirely  upon  vegetation,  and  are  separated  into 
two  families : 

1st.     Saw-flies  (TENTHREDINTD^;),  and 

2d.     Horn-tails  or  Wood-borers  (UROCEUID^E). 

The  Saw-flies  are  easily  lecognized  by  their  broad,  thin  wings, 
which  are  divided  into  numerous  cells  by  fine  veins  or  nervures,  and 
by  the  soft  and  yielding  integument  of  the  body.  The  antennae  are 
usually  short  and  simple,  varying  in  the  females  in  the  number  of  joints. 
A  few  species  have  these  organs  knobbed  at  the  tip  or  toothed  or 
feathered  on  one  edge.  The  ovipositor,  from  the  peculiar  structure  of 
which  these  insects  derive  their  popular  name,  consists  of  two  saw- 
like  blades,  the  sides  of  which  are  ridged  and  the  lower  edges  finely 
serrated  or  notched.  The  blades  are  strengthened  by  a  back  so  grooved 
that  they  can  slide  back  and  forth  upon  it.  When  not  in  use  they  are 
protected  by  a  sheath  and  concealed  in  an  opening  on  the  under  side  of 
the  abdomen.  With  this  most  ingenious  instrument  the  insect  saws 
little  oblique  slits  in  the  cuticle  of  leaves  or  in  the  principal  veins,  in 
which  she  places  her  eggs.  There  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule, 
found  among  species  that  are  very  prolific  and  destructive :  e.  g.,  the 
Imported  Currant-worm,  in  which  the  eggs  are  attached  externally  to 
the  veins  of  the  leaf  and  kept  in  place  by  a  sticky  fluid  which  is  exuded 
with  them.  In  such  species  the  ovipositor  is  found  to  have  lost,  in 
great  measure,  its  saw-like  character.  The  Saw-flies  are  slow  and  heavy 
in  flight,  sluggish  in  all  their  motions  and  easily  captured. 

The  larvae  are  called  "slugs"  and  "false  caterpillars,"  and  are 
classed  with  the  most  destructive  of  insect  pests.  The  Imported  and 
the  Native  Currant-worms,  the  Eose  slug,  the  Pear  slug,  the  White 
Pine  and  the  Larch  false  caterpillars  are  some  of  the  most  pernicious 
species.  They  are  of  elongate,  worm-like  form,  with  large,  roundish, 
glossy  heads,  on  some  of  which  are  seen  a  pair  of  antennee-like  pro- 
cesses. The  thoracic  legs  are  well  developed,  and  the  hinder  end  of 
the  body  is  supported  upon  six  to  eight  pairs  of  fleshy  points  or  props, 
which  differ  from  the  pro-legs  of  genuine  caterpillars,  not  only  in  their 
greater  number,  but  in  lacking  the  little  circle  of  hooks  by  which  the 
latter  can  so  firmly  attach  themselves  to  any  surface.  In  some  of  these 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  49 

larvse  the  surface  is  smooth  and  glossy,  in  others  spiny  or  niossy  or  cov- 
ered with  a  slimy  exudation,  while  others  excrete  a  powdery  or  cottony 
substance  that  gives  them  a  very  peculiar  appearance. 

Some  species,  such  as  the  White-pine  worm,  have  the  habit  of  ele- 
vating the  head  and  tail  when  at  rest,  others  keep  the  body  coiled  when 
not  feeding,  while  a  few  construct  leafy  cases  which  they  carry  about 
with  them  or  to  which  they  retire  for  repose. 

A  few  species  are  gregarious,  feeding  in  large  companies  or  spin- 
ning large  gummy  webs  in  which  they  cluster  in  masses.  When  full 
grown  many  of  these  larvae  drop  to  the  ground  and  form  tough  oval 
cocoons  among  the  fallen  leaves  and  rubbish,  or  they  burrow  into  the 
earth  and  enclose  themselves  in  cells  thinly  lined  with  silk.  Most  spe- 
cies hibernate  in  the  larva  state,  without  changing  to  pupae  until  the 
following  spring. 

The  family  of  the  Horn-tails  (UROCERID^:)  contains  comparatively 
few  species.  They  are  mostly  large  insects  with  stout  cylindrical 
bodies,  characterized  by  a  long  straight  horn  extending  from  the 
Abdomen.  In  the  males  this  appendage  is  at  the  tip,  but  in  the  females 
it  arises  from  the  middle  of  the  underside  of  the  abdomen  and  consti- 
tutes the  ovipositor.  It  is  more  auger-like  than  saw-like  in  its  form  and 
use,  and  is  used  for  boring  into  the  trunks  of  trees,  especially  the  elm 
and  pear,  to  which  the  boring  larvae  are  often  very  destructive. 

The  wings  are  narrow  but  strong,  expanding  more  than  two  inches, 
and  in  flight  making  a  loud  buzzing  sound.  The  length  of  the  body 
including  the  horn  is  also  more  than  two  inches. 

The  species  known  as  the  Pigeon  Tremex  (Tremex  columba,  Linn.) 
is  one  of  the  most  injurious.  Its  multiplication  is,  however,  very 
much  checked  by  a  large  ichneumon  fly  which  runs  its  long  ovipositor 
into  the  auger-holes  of  the  Tremex,  leaving  in  each  one  an  egg,  from 
which  hatches  a  deadly  enemy  and  devourer  of  the  first  Horn-tail  larva 
which  it  meets. 


50  OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Order  II.     COLEOPTERA. 

[Fig.  22.] 


A  Carabid,  Calosoma  calidium  with  larva 
(afterRiley). 

This  Order  of  insects— the  Beetles— includes  a  far  greater  number 
of  described  species — more  than  one  hundred  thousand — than  either 
of  the  other  primary  groups.  And  while  among  this  vast  assemblage 
we  find  an  almost  infinite  variety  in  size,  form,  color  and  the  adaptation 
of  certain  organs  for  certain  functions,  a  single  glance  is  sufficient  to 
enable  us  to  recognize  a  member  of  the  Order,  except,  perhaps,  in 
the  case  of  a  very  few  rare  and  unusual  forms. 

On  account  of  the  ease  with  which  specimens  may  be  collected  and 
preserved,  and  the  accuracy  with  which  the  external  structure  may  be 
defined,  these  insects  have  always  been  favorites  with  entomologists, 
and  the  student  will  find  them  most  interesting  and  convenient  subjects 
upon  which  to  begin  his  studies  of  insect  anatomy. 

The  popular  term  "  beetle  "  is  said  to  be  derived  from  an  old  Eng- 
lish word  signifying  a  "biter,"  and  is  most  appropriate  for  this  group 
of  insects  in  which  the  organs  for  biting  are  so  complex  and  so  perfect. 

Beetles  are  chiefly  characterized  by  the  peculiar  structure  of  the 
upper  wings,  which  are  transformed  into  a  pair  of  horny  or  leathery 
cases,  or  sheaths  meeting  in  a  straight  line  down  the  back,  and  covering 
not  only  the  abdomen,  but  two  joints  of  the  thorax  (the  mezo  and  meta 
thorax).  These  are  called  the  elytra  (sing,  elytron).  They  are  not  used 
to  any  extent  in  flight— their  office  appearing  to  be  mainly  that  of  armor 
for  the  protection  of  the  softer  parts  of  the  body.  The  true  membran- 
ous wings,  when  not  in  use,  are  snugly  folded  beneath  them,  not  only 
lengthwise,  in  fan-like  plaits,  but,  by  means  of  a  hinge  or  joint  in  the 
supporting  veins,  a  little  beyond  the  middle,  crosswise  as  well,  so  that 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  51 

in  most  species  they  may  be  completely  covered.  This  wing  structure 
can  be  most  satisfactorily  studied  in  the  common  May  beetle,  one  of  the 
species  which  few  people  have  any  repugnance  in  handling. 

The  frame-work  or  body- wall  of  most  beetles  is  very  hard  and  firm 
compared  to  that  of  many  other  insects.  This  is  very  necessary  to  pre- 
serve them  from  the  varied  dangers  incident  to  their  terrestrial  habits. 

The  mouth  of  beetles  is  considered  as  presenting  the  typical  form 
of  that  important  organ.  The  six  principal  parts,  mandibles,  maxillae, 
labrum  and  labium,  described  in  chapter  III,  Pt.  1st  (in  which  see  Fig.  3), 
are  always  present,  together  with  other  appendages  of  less  direct  use. 

The  eyes  are  usually  prominent  and  of  various  forms,  round,  oblong, 
kidney-shaped,  curved,  and  in  one  group  of  water  beetles  entirely 
divided  in  the  middle,  so  that  there  would  seem  to  be  two  on  each 
side.  The  ocelli  are  not  usually  present,  though  a  few  species  have  a 
single  pair,  or  perhaps  only  one. 

The  antennae  present  a  great  variety  of  forms,  some  of  which  are 
very  singular  and  beautiful,  as  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  Fig.  4,  Pt. 
1st.  They  are  mostly  eleven-jointed.  Only  the  pro-thorax,  which  is 
usually  very  wide,  is  visible  on  the  back,  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
wedge-shaped  section  of  the  meso-thorax,  termed  the  scutellum.  The 
abdomen  joins  the  thorax  by  a  wide  base,  and,  in  a  great  majority  of 
beetles,  is  almost,  if  not  entirely  covered  by  the  wing  cases.  Many  of 
the  leaf-feeding  species  and  a  few  of  those  that  are  predaceous,  fly  with 
great  ease  and  rapidity,  but  as  a  rule,  the  legs  are  the  principal  organs 
of  locomotion.  They  are  horny  and  strong,  and  of  various  shapes  to 
adapt  them  for  running,  leaping,  swimming  and  other  uses.  The  ap- 
parent joints  of  the  feet  vary  in  number  from  three  to  five,  and  the  foot 
terminates  in  most  cases  in  a  pair  of  sharp  claws. 

The  Iarva3  of  beetles  are  commonly  called  "grubs."  Most  of  these 
are  soft,  clumsy  looking  objects,  with  horny  heads  and  three  pairs  of 
sprawling  legs  on  the  thoracic  segments.  Some  species  have  in  addi- 
tion a  sort  of  pro-leg  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  body,  or  one  or  two  rows 
of  tubercles  (fleshy  points)  along  the  sides,  or  on  the  upper  or  under 
surface,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  move  with  ease  in  the  situations 
in  which  they  are  found.  The  larvae  of  Water-beetles  have  numerous 
oar-like  processes  along  the  sides  and  are  capable  of  swimming  very 
rapidly. 

Besides  these  forms  are  others  which,  living  enclosed  in  the  fruit  or 
wood  upon  which  they  feed,  have  no  use  for  legs  of  any  kind,  and  conse- 
quently do  not  possess  them.  Of  such  are  the  Gurculios  and  many 
kinds  of  wood-borers. 


52  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Coleopterous  larvae  feed  upon  almost  all  kinds  of  vegetable  and 
animal  substances,  from  the  petals  of  the  most  delicate  flower  to  the 
most  rank  smelling  carrion,  from  fruits  and  nuts  to  the  most  pungent 
spices  to  be  found  at  the  grocer's  or  druggist's.  A  considerable  pro- 
portion are  cannibals,  and  prey  upon  members  of  their  own  class* 
Larvae  of  such  species  are  usually  very  active,  while  the  vegetable 
feeders  are,  as  a  rule,  awkward  and  sluggish  in  their  movements.  In 
this  Order  the  transformations  are  complete.  The  larvae  molt  or  change 
their  skins  several  times,  and  their  growing  period  varies  in  length 
from  a  few  weeks  to  two  or  three  years.  They  transform  either  upon 
or  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  upon  the  leaves  or  within  the 
fruit  or  wood  upon  which  they  have  fed.  The  pupae  are  obtected,  re- 
sembling those  of  Hymenoptera  in  having  each  member  encased  in  a 
separate  sheath. 

In  the  matter  of  classification,  this  Order  is  so  comprehensive,  that 
it  is  impossible  within  the  limits  of  this  little  work  to  include  any  sys- 
tem that  will  enable  the  tyro  to  determine  every  species  of  which  he 
may  find  an  example,  except  as  to  the  primary  divisions.  Beyond  this- 
the  most  that  will  be  attempted  will  be  a  definition  of  such  groups  as  con- 
tain conspicuously  injurious  or  conspicuousjy  beneficial  species.  When 
we  learn  that  in  North  America  alone,  exclusive  of  Mexico,  we  have  more 
than  nine  thousand  named  species,  representing  upwards  of  seventeen 
hundred  genera  and  about  eighty  distinct  families,  it  is  evident  than 
volumes  are  required  for  anything  like  adequate  description  and 
definition. 

Following  the  system  of  the  recognized  authorities,  the  primary 
divisions  of  the  Ooleoptera  are  as  follows : 

Sub-Order  I.  The  True  Beetles  (C  o  L  E  o  p  T  E  R  A),  in  which  the 
mouth  parts  are  all  present  and  the  front  of  the  head  is  not  elongated. 

Sub-Order  II.  The  Snout  Beetles  (R  H  Y  N  c  o  p  H  o  R  A),  in  which 
the  front  part  of  the  head  is  more  or  less  prolonged  into  a  beak,  the 
labrum  not  distinguishable  and  the  palpi  reduced  to  minute,  jointless 
points. 

The  first  of  these  Sub-Orders  is  then  separated  into  two  sections, 
based  upon  the  correspondence  or  lack  of  correspondence  in  the  num- 
ber of  tarsal  joints. 

1st.  ISOMERA  (Similar  joints)  species  which,  wiih  rare  ex- 
ceptions, have  the  same  number  of  joints  in  all  the  feet. 

2d.  HETEROMERA  (Different  joints),  including  species  which 
have  five  joints  in  each  of  the  front  and  middle  feet,  and  only  four 
joints  in  each  of  the  hinder  pair. 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  53 

Beetles  belonging  in  the  ISOMERA  are  sub-divided  into  five 
tribes : 

I.  ADEPHAGA  (carnivorous  beetles),  Land  and  Water  Tigers,  hun- 
ters and  trappers  of  other  insects  for  the  most  part,  although  a  few 
species  subsist  on  vegetation.     In  these  the  antennae  are  thread-like* 
cylindrical,  with  the  joints  distinct. 

II.  CLAVICORNIA  (Club -horns),   having   the    antennae  thickened 
gradually  or  abruptly  toward  the  tip  ;  feet  with  from  one  to  five  joints ; 
small  beetles  of  various  habits. 

III.  SERRICORNIA  (Saw-horns),  having  the  antennae  toothed  or 
serrated  (in  some  few  species  also  enlarged  at  the  tip,  much  as  in  the 
preceding  tribe,  but  the  species  in  other  respects  agreeing  with  the 
members  of1  this  tribe).     This  group  includes  a  great  number  of  small 
borers. 

IY.  LAMELLICORNIA  (Leaf-horns),  having  the  knob  of  the  anten- 
nae composed  of  several  leaf-like  or  blade-like  parts,  which  the  insect 
can  unfold  or  close  up  at  will.  This  Tribe  includes  the  largest  insects 
in  the  Order,  most  of  which  feed,  often  in  the  perfect  as  well  as  the  lar- 
vae state,  upon  vegetation,  foliage,  roots  and  decayed  wood. 

Y.  PHYTOPHAGA  (Plant-eaters),  mostly  with  thread  like  antennae, 
in  some  species  very  long,  in  others  short  and  slightly  thickened  to- 
ward the  tip  ;  fourth  and  fifth  joints  of  the  feet  consolidated,  the  former 
minute.  All  the  species  feed  on  vegetation  and  many  are  extremely 
destructive. 

Neither  the  Section  HETEROMERA  nor  the  Sub-Order  E  H  Y  N- 
CHOPHORA  requires  division  into  tribes  for  convenience  of  study. 


CHAPTEE  XY. 
Order  COLEOPTERA.     Tribe  I.    ADEPHAGA. 

CANNIBAL  BEETLES. 

In  this  group  of  beetles  we  find  mainly  carnivorous  species,  many 
of  which  prey  especially  on  insects  destructive  to  vegetation,  and  on 
this  account  claim  recognition  as  among  our  best  friends.  They  also 
merit  consideration  by  their  great  beauty  of  form  and  color,  and  by  the 
grace  and  agility  of  their  movements.  The  most  important  families  are 
the  Tiger-beetles  (CICINDELID^),  the  Caterpillar  hunters 
the  Water-tigers  (DYTISCID^),  and  the  Water- whirligigs 

The  Tiger-beetles  received  their  popular  name  on  account  of  their 
ferocious  habits,  their  swift  movements  and  the  stealthy  manner  in  which 
their  larvae  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey.  They  are  diurnal  insects  of 


54  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

medium  or  rather  small  size  (three- fourths  inch  and  under  in  length),  of 
elegant  form  and  often  of  brilliant  metallic  color.  Their  chosen  haunts 
are  sunny  path-ways,  hard  beaten  roads  and  the  sandy  shores  of  streams, 
lakes  and  the  ocean. 

The  head  of  a  Tiger- beetle  is  broader  than  the  thorax.  It  is  pro- 
vided with  a  very  complete  mouth,  of  which  the  most  important  parts 
are  the  long,  sharply-toothed  and  curved  jaws,  which  cross  each  other 
when  closed.  The  eyes  are  large,  round  or  somwhat  oblong  and  pro- 
truding ;  the  antennae  long  and  slender,  arising  from  the  face  just  above 
the  base  of  the  mandibles.  The  prothorax  is  nearly  square,  the  scutel- 
lum  very  small,  and  the  wing  cases,  which  are  rather  narrow,  widen 
slightly  toward  the  hinder  end  of  the  body.  The  under  wiugs  are  well 
developed,  and  the  insect  rises  easily  into  the  air  for  short  flights.  The 
legs  are  long  and  slender  and  the  joints  of  the  feet  spiny.  The  dark 
metallic  color  is  in  some  species  varegated  by  dots  and  zigzag  lines  of 
yellow  or  cream  white.  The  larvae  live  in  perpendicular  holes  in  the 
ground  and  are  extremely  ugly  in  appearance.  They  have  a  broad  head 
and  immense  jaws,  and  long  sprawling  legs.  On  the  middle  of  the 
back  is  a  large  double  hump,  terminating  in  backward  curving  hooks, 
of  which  these  creatures  make  use  in  climbing  to  the  entrance  to  their 
holes  and  sustaining  themselves  there  while  lying  in  wait  for  their  prey. 
Any  unlucky  insect  happening  to  stray  within  reach  of  those  terrible 
jaws  is  seized  with  a  grasp  from  which  there  is  no  escape,  dragged  into 
the  hole  and  devoured. 

More  than  sixty  species  of  Cicindelidce  are  found  in  the  United 
States.  (See  beetle  on  plate.) 

The  Ground-beetles  or  "  Caterpillar-hunters  "  include  a  great  num- 
ber of  predaceous  species,  which  may  occasionally  be  seen  running 
over  the  ground  in  fields  and  gardens,  but  are  usually  hidden  under 
stones,  boards,  fallen  leaves  and  the  like  during  the  day.  They  are 
easily  distinguished  from  the  Tiger-beetles  by  the  head  being  narrower 
than  the  prothorax,  and  the  latter  somewhat  more  constricted  or  taper- 
ing toward  the  base  of  the  wing  covers.  They  are  also,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  of  plainer  coloring,  and  the  most  conspicuous  species  are 
of  larger  size  than  is  the  rule  among  the  Tiger-beetles.  One  of  the 
chief  structural  characters  of  these  beetles  is  the  peculiar  eardrop- 
shaped  trochanter  of  each  of  the  hinder  legs.  (See  Part  1st,  Fig.  6, 
A,  b.) 

They  are,  as  rule,  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  running  out  of  their 
hiding  places  at  nightfall,  and  exploring  field  and  garden,  even  climb- 
ing trees  in  the  search  for  their  six-legged  game,  tearing  in  pieces  cater- 
pillars and  grubs,  and  even  other  beetles,  wherever  found.  They  are  often 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY.  55 

attracted  to  lamplight,  and  I  have,  on  several  occasions,  seen  the  side- 
walks around  the  electric  light  posts  almost  covered  with  dead  and  dis- 
abled specimens  of  the  beautiful,  metallic-green  Calosoma  scrutator, 
Fabr.  As  they  are  very  swift  runners,  most  species  make  but  little 
use  of  their  wings ;  indeed,  the  latter  are  in  some  cases  entirely  unde- 
veloped, and  the  elytra  are  firmly  joined  at  the  suture  on  the  back. 

The  larvae  are  elongate,  somewhat  flattened  grubs,  having  the  body 
protected  on  top  by  horny  plates,  and  in  some  instances  terminated  in 
a  pair  of  branching  spines  or  forceps-like  appendages.  They  burrow 
back  and  forth  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  destroy  many 
of  the  soft  larvae  of  fruit  and  leaf-feeding  species  that  have  entered  the 
ground  for  transformation. 

Among  the  most  beneficial  species  is  the  Fiery  Ground-beetle  (Calo- 
soma calidium,  Fabr.),  a  large  and  elegant  beetle  of  a  black  color,  with 
elytra  (wing  covers)  thickly  dotted  with  shining,  impressed,  coppery 
spots  (see  Fig.  — ).  This  beetle  preys  upon  cut-worms,  and  its  larvae, 
having  the  same  habit,  has  been  called  the  "  Out-worm  lion."  Another 
smaller  species,  Lebia  grandis,  with  a  red-brown  thorax,  and  legs  and 
dark-blue  wing  covers  renders  us  good  service  in  destroying  the  larvae 
of  the  Colorado  potato-beetle. 

One  species,  a  little  larger  than  the  above,  but  clo&ely  resembling 
it  in  form  and  color,  is  called  the  Bombardier  beetle  (Brachinus  fumaus), 
as  it  has  the  singular  power  of  discharging  a  volatile  and  pungent  fluid 
from  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  which  rises  in  the  air  like  a  little  puff 
of  smoke.  It  is  a  means  of  defense  against  its  enemies. 

The  Water-tigers  are  quite  common  in  ponds  and  sluggish  streams. 
The  beetles  are  easily  recognized  by  their  broad,  flat,  ovate,  pol- 
ished bodies,  often  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length,  and  by  the  hairy, 
oar-like  shape  of  the  hinder  legs.  When  disturbed  these  beetles  dive 
deep  under  water,  carrying  with  them  a  bubble  of  air  which  sustains 
respiration  until  they  again  rise  to  the  surface.  Their  larvae  are  long 
and  cylindrical,  with  a  pair  of  breathing  tubes  at  the  posterior  end  that 
can  be  protruded  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  head  is  armed 
with  powerful,  scissor-like  jaws  which  are  kept  in  almost  constant  mo- 
tion. They  are  very  savage  and  greedy,  feeding  upon  other  aquatic 
insects,  tadpoles  and  small  fish,  in  some  streams  proving  v^ery  destruc- 
tive to  the  latter.  When  full  grown  they  crawl  upon  shore  and  enclose 
themselves  in  earthen  cells  within  which  they  change  to  pupae.  The 
perfect  insects  make  their  way  into  the  water  as  soon  as  they  emerge. 

The  "  Whirligigs "  are  another  family  of  preying  water-beetles 
which,  though  allied  to  the  Water-tigers,  are  distinguished  from  them 


56  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

by  their  smaller  size,  their  round  blue-black  bodies,  long  front  legs  and 
very  short  swimming  legs.  The  eyes  are  bilobed,  giving  them  the  ap- 
pearance of  two  on  each  side.  They  usually  appear  in  groups  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  sporting  and  circling  about  in  great  apparent  en- 
joyment. The  larvae  look  like  myriapods,  having  a  pair  of  long,  spiny- 
processes  on  each  abdominal  segment. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Order,  COLEOPTERA.    Tribes,  CLAVICORNIA  and  SERRICORNIA* 

CLUB  HORNED   AND    SAW-HORNED   BEETLES. 

[Fig    23.] 


Flat-headed  Apple  tree  borer  (Chrysobolbris  femorata),  with  laiva 
rafter  Riley.) 

In  the  first  of  these  Tribes  we  find  a  large  number  of  quite  dis- 
tinct families  and  genera  of  beetles  in  which  the  principal  point  of 
agreement  is  found  in  the  antenna,  which  in  most  of  the  species  are 
"  clubbed,"  or  rather  thick  and  gradually  and  slightly  enlarged  toward 
the  tip.  But  even  in  this  character  there  is  some  variation — Ips  fa  si  at  a 
and  the  species  of  Nitidula,  for  example,  having  antennae  that  are  dis- 
tinctly knobbed  at  the  end. 

Among  the  Clavicorn  beetles  the  number  of  joints  of  the  feet 
ranges  from  one  to  five,  most  species  having  the  same  number  in  the 
hind  tarsi  as  in  the  others. 

The  representative  Families  of  this  subdivision  of  the  Order  are 
the  Burying  beetles  (SILPHIDJE),  the  Kove  beetles  (STAPHYLINID.E), 
the  Lady-bird  beetles  (OOCCINELLID^),  and  the  Museum  pests  and 
Carpet  beetles  (DERMESTID^E). 

The  Burying  beetles  or  Sexton  beetles  are  so  called  from  their  habit 
of  first  burying  the  dead  bodies  of  other  insects,  birds  and  small  ani- 
mals upon  which  their  larvae  feed,  before  placing  their  eggs  upon  them  ; 
and  one  is  sometimes  astonished  upon  coming  across  such  small  car- 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY.  57 

rion  to  find  it  being  moved  by  some  unseen  force.  If  taken  up  or 
turned  over,  several  species  of  large  beetles  that  were  at  work  digging 
out  the  earth  beneath  it  will  be  disclosed.  Many  of  the  species  are 
easily  collected  by  means  of  such  unsavory  traps. 

These  beetles  differ  considerably  in  size  and  color,  but  all  have 
rather  broad,  flattened  bodies,  five  joints  in  all  the  feet,  which  end  in 
long  claws.  The  antennae  are  rather  abruptly  enlarged  at  the  tips.  The 
prothorax  is  expanded  into  a  broad  plate  used  as  a  shovel  in  the  dig- 
ging operations.  Necrophorus  americanus,  Oliv.,  is  our  largest  species, 
frequently  measuring  one  and  one-fourth  inch  in  length  by  one-half 
inch  in  breadth.  It  is  of  a  glossy-black  color,  with  a  large  red-brown 
spot  in  the  middle  of  the  head,  the  prothorax  being  almost  entirely 
of  red-brown,  and  there  are  two  large  patches  of  the  same  bright  color 
on  each  wing  cover.  The  black  antennae  end  in  a  leafy  knob  of  golden 
brown,  and  the  joints  of  the  front  feet  are  covered  on  the  under  side 
with  silky  hairs  of  a  similar  color.  The  pointed  tip  of  the  abdomen 
protrudes  about  one-fourth  inch  beyond  the  squarely  cut  wing  covers. 
In  the  genus  Silpha  the  body  is  very  flat  and  almost  orbicular,  the 
prothorax  being  expanded  into  a  wide,  thin  flange,  and  is  usually  of  a 
brighter  color  than  the  broad,  roughened  wing  covers. 

The  Rove  beetles  have  long,  slender,  black  or  dark  colored  bodies, 
with  very  short,  square  wing  covers  which  leave  more  than  one-half  of 
the  abdomen  unprotected.  The  head  is  usually  somewhat  broader 
than  the  prothorax,  the  sharply  pointed  jaws  crossed  in  front,  and  the 
rather  small,  oval  eyes  are  wide  apart.  Some  species  are  an  inch  or 
more  in  length,  while  others  are  very  minute.  Like  the  preceding 
tribe,  they  are  carrion  feeders,  but  prefer  the  carcasses  of  the  larger 
animals,  such  as  dogs  and  horses. 

trig.  24.]  The  Lady-bird  beetles  include  a  group  of  small^ 

handsome  beetles  of  an  oval  or  hemispherical  form, 
with  three-jointed  feet  and  short  antennae.  The 
surface  is  polished  and  usually  ornamented  with 
round  or  oval  spots  of  black  on  a  rose-red,  brick- 
red  or  orange  ground,  or  with  red  spots  on  a  black 
and  pBpse  ~  after  ground.  The  Lady  birds  are  among  the  best  known 
of  their  order,  and  deserve  to  be  the  popular  favorites  which  they  are, 
on  account  of  the  excellent  service  which  they  render  in  ridding  our 
gardens  and  orchards  of  plant-lice,  bark-lice  and  other  small  insect 
pests.  The  larvae  are  ugly,  alligator-shaped  creatures,  generally  of  a 
dull,  black  color,  in  some  species  banded  with  yellow.  Some  have  the 
surface  covered  with  spines,  while  others  are  simply  ridged  and  hairy. 


58  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

Megilla  maculata,  one  of  the  most  familiar,  is  about  one-fifth  of  an 
inch  long,  of  oval  shape  and  pink  color,  marked  on  head,  thorax  and 
wing  covers  with  large,  black  spots.  Hippodamia  sonvergens  is  some- 
what larger,  of  a  dull  orange  color,  with  very  small  black  dots.  Chilo- 
corus  bivulneris  is  hemispherical,  about  one-sixth  inch  in  diameter,  shin- 
ing black,  with  a  conspicuous  blood-red  spot  on  each  wing  cover,  near 
the  base.  It  is  an  especial  enemy  of  all  sorts  of  bark-lice  or  scale 
insects,  and  may  be  found  on  trees  or  shrubs  infested  with  the  latter. 
Vedalia  cardinalis,  which  resembles  the  above  species  in  size  and 
shape,  but  is  of  a  bright  red  color,  with  four  black  spots  on  the  wing 
covers,  is  at  present  the  most  celebrated  member  of  its  group,  having 
been  imported  under  the  instructions  of  Dr.  Eiley,  U.  S.  Entomologist, 
from  Australia  into  California,  in  1888,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  in 
check  the  Fluted  scale  of  the  orange  (leery a J,  and  having  in  less  than 
two  years  almost  exterminated  the  pest. 

About  one  hundred  and  forty-five  species  of  Lady-birds  are  known 
in  North  America,  all  of  which,  so  far  as  known,  are  carnivorous,  ex- 
cept one  species  (Epilachna  borealis),  the  Northern  Lady-bird,  which  is 
a  vegetarian  and  occasionally  quite  destructive  to  squash  and  cucum- 
ber vines. 

The  Museum  Pests — Dermestes — are  also  mostly  small  species, 
which  are  not  only  the  special  pests  of  museums,  derstroying  very 
rapidly  the  contents  of  entomological  and  ornithological  cabinets  when 
they  have  once  found  entrance  to  them,  but  they  are  very  destructive, 
also,  to  furs,  woolens,  feathers  and  similar  animal  products,  and  some 
species  even  invade  the  pantry.  In  these  beetles  the  head  and  pro- 
thorax  are  short,  the  latter  having  grooves  for  the  reception  of  the 
eleven  jointed  antennae;  the  eyes  are  round  and  between  them  is  a 
single  ocellus.  The  legs  are  short,  with  five  jointed  feet.  The  larvae 
are  very  active,  hairy  grubs,  some  of  which  have  a  trfft  of  bristles  at 
the  tail,  and  most  species  shun  the  light,  although  the  beetles  of  one  or 
two  kinds  have  been  taken  on  flowers. 

Dermestes  lardarius,  one  of  the  larger  species,  black  with  broad 
gray  bands  at  the  base  of  the  wing  covers,  is  sometimes  destructive  to 
dried  meats  and  similar  articles  of  food.  D.  vulpinus,  one-third  of  an 
inch  long  and  entirely  dull  black,  attacks  stored  hides  and  manufactured 
leather.  Anthrenus  varius,  the  worst  of  the  museum  pests,  is  round 
oval  in  form,  only  about  one-tenth  inch  in  length,  bright  chestnut  brown 
with  the  wing  covers  crossed  by  three  wavy  bands  of  pale  gray,  be- 
tween which  are  dashes  and  flecks  of  black.  A.  scrophularia,  the 
"  Buffalo  bug,"  or  carpet  beetle,  is  still  smaller  than  the  above  species, 
is  black  with  markings  of  pale  red  and  white.  It  was  introduced 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY.  59 

some  years  ago  in  imported  carpets  from  Europe,  and  has  already  be- 
come a  widely  disseminated  pest.  Among  the  beetles  classified  as 
SERRICORNIA  are  found  many  very  beautiful  and  interesting  insects,  as 
well  as  some  that  are  exceedingly  pernicious.  Most  of  the  species 
have  rather  short  serrate  antennae,  are  of  oblong  or  elongate  oval  form, 
with  five-pointed,  or  in  a  few  species,  four-pointed  tarsi.  The  most 
important  Families  are  Spring  or  snapping  beetles  (  ELATERID^E  ),  the 
saw-horned  borers  (BuFRESTiD^j),  and  the  fire-fly  and  soldier  beetles 
(  LAMPYRAD^E  ).  The  spring  beetles  have  the  entirely  peculiar  habit, 
if  laid  upon  their  backs,  of  throwing  themselves  into  the  air  with  a 
jerk,  in  most  cases  coming  down  in  proper  position.  If  held  loosely  in 
the  hand,  also,  they  will  bend  themselves  backward  and  strike  again  and 
again  in  the  effort  to  obtain  their  freedom.  The  power  to  effect  these 
motions  lies  in  an  ingenious  sort  of  spring  in  the  shape  of  a  strong 
pointed  projection  on  the  prosternum  ( the  under  side  of  the  prothorax), 
which  by  curving  the  body  backward  is  caught  suddenly  in  a  socket 
on  the  mezo  sternum,  causing  an  elastic  rebound  of  the  whole  body. 
These  beetles  are  of  long,  oval,  somewhat  flattened  form,  and  usually  of 
dull  brown  color,  though  a  few  species  display  brighter  tints,  and  the 
surface  is  covered  with  a  fine  pubescence.  The  outer  angles  of  the 
very  wide  prothorax  are  prolonged  into  points  which  curve  around 
the  edge  of  the  wing  covers. 

The  larvae  are  known  as  "  Wire- worms,*7  in  reference  to  their  long, 
hard,  slender  bodies.  Some  species  rank  with  injurious  insects  from 
their  habit  of  cutting  off  the  roots  of  young  corn  and  other  vegetation. 
On  the  other  hand,  several  are  beneficial,  and  are  known  to  find  their 
way  into  the  tunnels  of  wood-boring  larvae  and  destroy  them.  The 
majority,  however,  so  far  as  known,  breed  in  decaying  wood  or  the  pith, 
of  weeds.  A  few  large  species  are  luminous,  and  are,  at  night,  objects 
of  great  splendor. 

Our  largest  and  most  striking  American  species,  the  Eye-spotted 
Elater  or  Snapping-beetle  (Alaus  oculatus,  Linn.),  varies  in  length  from 
one  to  one  and  one-half  inches.  It  is  of  a  black  color,  with  the  wing 
covers  longitudinally  ridged,  and  marked  with  fine  lines  and  flecks  of 
white,  which,  being  of  the  nature  of  scale-like  hairs,  are  liable  to  rub 
off.  On  the  top  of  the  broad  pro-thorax  are  two  large  velvety  black 
spots  encircled  with  white,  which  from  their  resemblance  to  eyes  are 
often  mistaken  for  them. 

The  Saw-horned  borers  (BUPRESTID^:),  compose  a  large  group  of 
handsome  hard-shelled,  compactly  formed  beetles,  all  of  which  have  the 
antennae,  which  are  rather  short,  serrate  on  the  inner  edge.  They  are 
usually  of  a  pale  brown  or  gray  color,  with  brassy  or  coppery  reflections  : 


£0  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

indeed  the  entire  surface,  minutely  roughened  and  indented  as  it  is,  ap- 
pears like  beaten  metal.  The  head  is  deeply  sunken  into  the  thorax, 
&nd  the  latter  widens  slightly  behind  and  fits  tightly  over  the  base  of 
the  wing  covers. 

The  Buprestians  are  diurnal  insects,  flying  in  the  sunshine  or 
basking  in  it  while  slowly  crawling  up  and  down  the  trunks  of  trees,  in 
the  bark  of  which  they  deposit  their  eggs.  The  larvae  are  wood-borers, 
gall-makers  or  leaf-miners,  and  are  all  more  or  less  destructive  to  forest 
and  fruit  trees  and  shrubbery.  They  are  characterized  by  a  relatively 
enormous^  expansion  of  the  pro-thoracic  joint,  from  which  the  remain- 
ing two  joints  of  the  thorax  taper  abruptly  to  the  slender,  cylindrical 
abdominal  division.  There  are  no  legs,  and  the  enlarged  joint  has  a 
smooth  horny  plate  on  both  upper  and  under  sides,  and  is  much  flat- 
tened. 

The  well-known  Flat-headed  borer  (Chysobothras  femorata,  Fabr.), 
so  destructive  to  many  kinds  of  fruit  and  shade  trees,  is  the  best  repre- 
sentative of  the  boring  species.  The  species  of  Agrilus  cause  swellings 
in  the  stems  of  blackberries  and  raspberries.  These  beetles  are  slender 
&nd  cylindrical,  with  dark-blue  or  black  wing  covers  and  copper-colored 
thorax,  and  are  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long.  The  larvae  of  the 
species,  included  in  the  genus  Brachys,  mine  the  leaves  of  apple  and 
oak. 

The  Fire-flies  and  Soldier  beetles  are  very  different  in  many  re- 
spects from  the  preceding  group.  Their  bodies  are  very  soft  and  the 
wing  covers  thin  and  flexible.  In  the  "  Fire-flies"  or  "  Lightning-bugs" 
( genera  Photinus  and  Photurm),  the  head  is  almost  concealed  under 
the  expanded  margin  of  the  pro-thorax.  The  light  which  they  emit  is 
supposed  to  be  from  a  phosphorescent  substance  in  the  abdomen,  and 
is  given  off  in  flashes  at  irregular  intervals,  both  during  flight  and  re- 
pose. In  Photinus  pyralis  both  sexes  are  winged  and  luminous.  In 
Photurus,  the  somewhat  smaller  and  less  brilliant  species  often  have 
wingless  females. 

The  larvae,  which  are  u  glow-worms,"  burrow  in  th  eearth,  often  com- 
ing to  the  surface,  and  have  a  faint  luminosity.  They  feed  on  the  soft 
larvae  of  other  insects  and  on  earth-worms. 

The  most  common  species  of  Soldier-beetle  is  a  slender,  clay-yel- 
low insect,  with  a  large  black  spot  on  the  top  of  the  pro-thorax  and  an 
oblong  one  near  the  tip  of  each  wing  cover.  This  beetle  bears  the 
rather  formidable  name  of  Chauliognathus  pennsylvanicus,  De  G.  The 
larvae  somewhat  resemble  those  of  the  lady-birds  and  like  them  are  of 
service  to  us  by  feeding  on  other  insects  that  are  injurious  to  vegeta 
tion.  The  beetles  may  almost  always  be  found  in  the  autumn  upon  the 
flowers  of  the  Golden-rod  and  Eupatorium. 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  61 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

Order  COLEOPTERA.     Tribe  LAMELLICORNIA. 

[Fig.  25.] 


Spotted  Pelidnota,  (Pelidnotapunctata)  with  larvae  and  pupae  (after  Riley) . 

The  Tribe  LAMELLICORNIA  is  of  great  extent,  and  in  it  we  find 
mostly  large  or  medium-sized  beetles  which  feed  on  vegetation,  either 
fresh  or  in  a  state  of  decay,  or  on  the  excrement  of  the  larger  animals. 
These  beetles  resemble  each  other  chiefly  in  the  form  of  the  antennae, 
which  terminate  in  a  knob  or  expansion,  composed  of  three — sometimes 
more — leaf-like  blades,  attached  by  one  end  and  capable  of  being  opened 
or  closed  like  the  pages  of  a  book,  at  the  will  of  the  insect. 

Before  taking  up  the  true  Lamellicorns  we  find  a  small  group,  some- 
times distinguished  as  PECTICORNIA  (tooth-horned),  in  which  the  anten- 
nae are  furnished  at  the  tips  with  several  stiff  projections  on  one  side, 
like  the  teeth  to  a  comb,  and  are  further  characterized  by  being  bent 
or  elbowed  in  the  middle. 

In  this  division  the  principal  Family  (LuCANiD^a)  contains  the  Stag 
beetles  or  Pinching  beetles.  In  these  the  head  is  very  broad,  the  eyes 
comparatively  small,  the  shanks  (tibiae)  notched  or  spined  on  the  outer 
edge,  and  the  feet  are  all  five-jointed.  The  great  peculiarity,  however, 
is  found  in  the  unusual  development  of  the  jaws,  which  protrude  from 
the  front  of  the  head,  and  are  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  the  length 
of  the  body,  armed  with  spines  and  tooth-like  projections  on  their  inner 
edges.  The  larvae  are  large,  horny  textured  grubs,  with  four  or  six 
sprangling  thoracic  legs,  and  are  mostly  found  in  rotten  stumps  or 
roots. 


62  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Our  largest  species,  Lucanus  elaphus,  Fab.,  occurs  most  abundantly 
in  the  southern  States,  but  is  often  taken  as  far  north  as  St.  Louis.  This 
js  indeed  a  formidable  looking  insect.  It  is  very  hard  and  smooth,  of 
a  mahogany-brown  color,  the  body  one  and  one-half  inch  in  length, 
and  the  immense  mandibles  extending  forward  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
more.  It  is  from  the  resemblance  of  these  to  the  antlers  of  a  deer 
that  it  receives  the  most  appropriate  name  of  "  Stag  beetle."  Lucanus 
dama,  Hum.,  is  the  most  common  "Pinch  beetle,"  and  often  enters  our 
rooms  on  summer  evenings  to  the  terror  of  nervous  people,  whom  it 
could  not  injure,  but  to  whom  it  might  give  a  severe  pinch  with  its 
sharply  toothed  jaws,  which  curve  inward  and  are  about  one-fourth 
inch  long.  The  beetle  is  of  the  same  form  and  texture,  but  a  little 
lighter  in  color  and  considerably  smaller  than  the  southern  Stag  beetle. 

Another  large  beetle  belonging  in  this  group  is  the  Horned  Passalus 
(Passalus  cornutus,  Fab.).  This  is  a  shining  black  species  of  an  oblong 
form,  having  the  squarish  pro-thorax  separated  on  top  from  the  abdomen 
by  a  decided  "waist"  or  constriction.  The  wing  covers  are  longi- 
tudinally grooved.  In  this  species  the  jaws  are  not  abnormally  en- 
larged, but  on  each  side  of  the  head  is  a  little  pointed  horn,  and 
between  them  a  longer  one  curving  downward  over  the  mouth.  This 
beetle  is  usually  one  and  one-fourth  inch  in  length. 

The  typical  LAMELLICORNIA  are,  for  convenience,  separated 
into  two  divisions,  in  consideration  of  their  different  feeding  habit 
chiefly,  viz. :  the  Excrementivora,  the  larvae  of  which  mostly  breed  in 
manure,  and  Herbivora,  in  which  the  larvae  feed  on  vegetation,  either 
growing  or  dead.  In  the  first  division  the  principal  families  are  the 
Copridce,  Aphodiidce  and  Trogidce. 

They  are  all  scavengers  and  rank  either  as  beneficial  or  innoxious. 
The  largest  species,  Copris  Carolina,  Lim.,  is  a  great,  squarish,  clumsy 
creature,  nearly  an  inch  long  and  three-fourths  inch  wide,  that  frequently 
flies  into  our  lighted  rooms  at  night,  and  after  bumping  about  against 
the  walls  and  ceiling  falls  to  the  floor  with  a  thud,  generally  landing 
upon  its  back,  and  lying  helpless,  kicking  its  legs  about  wildly  in  the 
effort  to  turn  over.  It  is  of  a  black  color,  somewhat  hairy  on  the  under 
surface  and  legs,  and  the  latter  have  the  shanks  of  the  fore  legs  ex- 
panded and  notched  for  use  in  digging,  as  is  characteristic  of  all  the 
Lamellicorns.  The  female  beetle  tunnels  perpendicularly  under  the 
droppings  of  cows  and  horses,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  places  a 
large  round  ball  of  manure  on  which  she  deposits  an  egg.  The  larva, 
an  unsightly,  much-wrinkled  grub,  very  thick  in  the  middle  and  taper- 
ing toward  each  end,  works  its  way  into  this  compact  ball,  and  beginning 
somewhere  near  the  middle,  eats  toward  the  surface  until  it  is  reduced 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY.  63 

to  a  mere  shell,  which,  serves  as  a  sort  of  cocoon  for  the  protection  of 
the  pupa. 

Here  also  we  find  the  common  "  Tumble-bug  "  or  "Tumble-dung" 
(Canthon  Icevis,  Drury),  a  much  smaller,  dark-brown  species,  usually 
seen  in  pairs  rolling  a  ball  of  manure  about  the  size  of  a  large  marble. 
This  species  affords  one  of  the  rare  instances  in  which  the  male  assists 
the  female  in  making  provision  for  the  young.  When  a  suitable  spot 
is  found,  a  shaft  is  sunk  four  or  five  inches  into  the  earth,  the  ball 
rolled  in,  and  the  female,  after  pausing  long  enough  to  deposit  an  egg 
upon  it,  begins  filling  up  the  hole,  in  which  labor  her  partner  assists. 
But  little  pains,  however,  is  taken  with  this  part  of  the  work,  and  often 
the  hole  is  left  partly  unfilled.  A  beautiful  species,  somewhat  larger 
than  the  above,  has  similar  habits.  This  is  (Phanceus  carnifex,  Linn.) 
It  is  of  a  metallic  green  color  with  copper-colored  thorax,  which  in  the 
male  is  adorned  with  a  backward  curving  horn. 

The  APHODIDJE  are  all  small  shining  black  or  black  and  red 
beetles,  which  sometimes  astonish  gardeners  by  the  numbers  in  which 
they  appear  in  green-houses  and  on  hot- bed  sashes,  having  bred  from 
the  manure  used  as  a  fertilizer. 

The  family  TROGID^E  includes  but  one  genus,  Trox.  The  most 
common  species  are  small,  dingy,  black,  roundish  beetles,  often  attracted 
to  the  light  at  night.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  widely  dilated 
thighs  of  the  front  legs  and  by  the  deeply  ridged  and  pitted  surface  of 
the  thorax  and  wing  covers. 

The  Leaf-chafers,  Herbivorous  Lamellicorns,  are  distinguished  from 
the  manure-beetles  by  their  more  slender  legs,  long  sharp  claws,  and 
by  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  projecting  slightly  beyond  the  wing  covers. 
They  feed  entirely  on  vegetable  matter,  and  unlike  most  other  insects 
in  their  perfect  state,  the  beetles  themselves  often  do  great  damage  to 
flowers  and  foliage.  Many  of  the  larvae  live  underground,  subsisting 
on  the  roots  of  grasses  and  other  valuable  plants ;  others  are  found  in 
rotten  wood  or  other  decaying  vegetation.  They  are  fat,  white,  wrinkled 
grubs,  with  horny  heads,  long,  sprawling  legs,  and  the  hinder  part  of 
the  body  in  many  species  thicker  than  the  remainder,  and  filled  with 
dark  waste  matter. 

,  This  group  has  been  separated  into  four  families :  the  Monarch 
beetles  ( Dynastidce ) ,  the  Dor  beetles  or  May  beetles  (Helonthidce),  the 
Brilliant  chafers  (Rutelidccj,  and  the  Flower  chafers  (Cetoncedw). 
Among  the  Monarch  beetles  we  find  the  largest  insects  in  the  Order. 
One  species,  sometimes  called  the  Ehinocerus  beetle  (Dynastes  tit y us, 
Linn.),  is  often  seen  in  the  Southern  and  Middle  States.  It  is  fully  two 

E — 5 


64  OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

inches  in  length,  by  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  thick  in  proportion.  The 
color  is  pale  gray,  the  wing  covers  being  marked  with  numerous  irregu- 
lar blotches  and  spots  of  black.  From  the  front  of  the  head  of  the 
male  a  long,  pointed,  polished  horn  curves  upward,  which  is  almost  met 
by  a  similar  downward  curving  one  on  the  thorax,  on  each  side  of 
which  are  two  small,  straight  ones.  The  female  has  no  thoracic  horn, 
and  only  a  small  protuberance  on  the  head.  The  larv*  are,  as  a  rule, 
found  in  rotten  wood,  but  are  also  said  to  injure  ash  trees  by  feeding 
on  the  roots. 

Under  the  name  of  Dor-beetles  or  May  or  June  beetles  (  MELON- 
THIDJS),  are  grouped  a  great  variety  of  medium-sized,  leaf-feeding  spe- 
cies, most  of  which  have  thick,  oblong  bodies  and  are  of  a  plain  brown 
color.  In  some  the  surface  is  smooth  and  shining,  in  others  more  or 
less  thickly  covered  with  hairs  or  scales.  One  of  their  most  peculiar 
characters  is  that  each  of  the  claws  of  the  feet  is  minutely  bifid  or 
forked  at  the  tip,  which  accounts  for  the  persistence  with  which  they 
cling  to  any  but  the  hardest  and  most  polished  surfaces.  This  fine 
division  of  the  claws  can  be  distinctly  seen  only  with  a  lens. 

In  this  family  the  agriculturist  finds  a  large  number  of  the  promi- 
nent pests  of  his  farm  and  orchard,  to  only  a  few  of  which  have  we 
here  space  for  reference. 

One  of  these  destructive  species  is  the  common  May  or  June  bee- 
tle (Lachnosterna fusca,  Froh.),  a  smooth,  shining,  chestnut-brown  insect, 
which  issues  from  the  ground  in  swarms  during  the  latter  part  of  May 
or  early  in  June,  filling  the  air  at  twilight,  and  finding  its  way  in  num- 
bers into  lamp-lighted  rooms,  unless  excluded  with  the  utmost  care. 
These  beetles  settle  on  trees  at  night  and  feed  voraciously  on  the  foli- 
age. They  are  cleanly,  inodorous  and  inofensive  creatures  to  handle, 
and  therefore  make  excellent  and  interesting  subjects  for  examination 
and  experiment. 

They  remain  hidden  and  dormant  during  the  day,  but  awake  to  re- 
newed activity  for  several  successive  evenings.  After  pairing  the 
male  dies  and  the  female  burrows  into  the  earth  to  lay  her  eggs. 

From  the  latter  are  hatched  the  "white  grubs,"  so  well  known  as 
among  the  chief  pests  of  corn  fields,  meadows,  lawns  and  strawberry 
beds.  The  observations  of  earlier  entomologists  pointed  to  the  con- 
clusion that  these  grtibs  required  at  least  two  years  for  development, 
but  Prof.  Forbes,  of  Illinois,  has  demonstrated  that  under  certain  con- 
ditions the  insect  attains  its  growth  and  passes  through  all  its  transfor- 
mations in  a  single  year. 

In  the  same  genus  (Lachnosterna — which  means  "  hairy-breasted") 
are  a  large  number  of  other  chafers,  having  essentially  the  same  habits 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  65 

as  L.fusca,  but  many  of  these  have  not  only  the  under  side  of  the  tho- 
rax hairy,  but  the  pro-thorax  and  wing  covers  also  covered  with  a  soft 
pubescence,  sometimes  evenly  distributed  and  again  arranged  on  the 
wing-co/ers  in  longitudinal  ridges.  Some  of  the  species  are  much 
smaller  and  lighter  colored.  The  Eose  chafer  or  Rose-bug  (Macrodac- 
tylus  subspinosus,  Fabr.)  belongs  also  in  this  family  (MELOLONTHIDJE). 
This  is  an  ochreous-yellow  beetle,  rather  slender  in  form,  about  one- 
third  inch  in  length,  with  very  long,  spiny  legs.  Its  color  is  really 
almost  black,  but  when  fresh  it  is  densely  and  evenly  clothed  in  .pale 
ochreous  scales,  which  give  to  it  its  light  color.  It  is  altogether  too 
common  in  the  Eastern  and  Northwestern  States,  where  it  is  exceed- 
ingly destructive  to  the  blossoms  of  the  grape,  rose,  and  some  other 
plants.  Its  larviB  feed  on  the  roots  of  shrubbery,  and  in  their  turn 
do  much  damage. 

Among  the  Brilliant  chafers  (RuTELiD^;),  which  are  separated 
from  the  Melolonthians  by  the  unequal  claws,  which  are  not  bifid  at 
the  tip,  is  a  large  species,  the  Spotted  Pelidnota  (Pelidnota  punctata, 
Linn.),  which  is  illustrated  as  a  type  of  the  Family.  (Fig.  25.)  This  is 
one  of  the  grape-vine  pests,  gnawing  the  foliage.  It  is  a  stout  spe- 
cies, about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  clay-yellow  color,  with 
three  large,  black  dots  on  each  wing-cover.  Dr.  Eiley  bred  the  larva 
in  decaying  stumps  and  roots.  The  Goldsmith  beetle  (Gatalpa  lanigera, 
Linn.),  a  beautiful  species,  is  very  like  the  above  in  form  and  size,  but 
is  entirely  of  a  cream  yellow  color,  with  golden  and  prismatic  reflec- 
tions. 

Among  the  Flower  beetles  (CETONIIDJE)  are  a  few  of  great  size, 
but,  while  none  are  very  small,  most  of  the  North  American  species  are 
of  medium  or  under  medium  size.  The  form  is  slightly  flattened,  the 
scutellum  unusually  large,  and  the  wing  covers  are  peculiarly  notched 
or  hollowed  out  on  the  sides  near  the  base,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary 
to  raise  them  to  allow  the  wings  to  be  unfolded  for  flight.  The  mouth 
is  provided  with  a  brush  for  collecting  pollen,  of  which  these  insects 
are  very  greedy,  as  they  also  are  of  nectar,  and  to  procure  it  they  cut 
into  tubular  flowers.  They  may  be  found  in  spring  drinking  the  sap 
that  sometimes  oozes  from  the  trunks  of  maples  and  other  trees,  and 
are  also  quite  injurious  to  ripe  fruit.  They  differ  from  other  members 
of  their  family  in  being  diurnal  in  habit.  Allorhina  nitida,  Linn.,  is  a 
beautiful,  large,  velvety  green  species,  with  light- brown  margins  to  the 
wing  covers.  Euryomia  inda  and  E.  melancholic^  smaller,  red-brown 
mottled  species,  are  the  most  destructive  to  flowers  and  fruit. 


66 


OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Order  COLEOPTERA.     Tribe  PHYTOPHAGA. 

BORERS  AND  LEAF  BEETLES. 

Also  Section  H  E  T  E  R  o  31  E  R  A.    t 

BLISTER  BEETLES,  ETC. 

[Fig.  26.] 


Round-headed  Apple  Tree  Borer  (Saperda  Candida.) 

This  division  of  similar  footed  beetles  comprises  a  great  variety 
of  forms,  all  of  which  feed  on  vegetation,  and  many  of  which  are 
extremely  destructive  to  trees,  herbaceous  plants  and  seeds.  Three  of 
the  most  important  families  are  the  Long-horned  borers  (CERAMBY- 
CID.E),  the  Leaf  beetles  (CHRYSOMELID^),  and  the  Seed  beetles 

(BBUCHIDJE  ). 

The  first  of  these  families,  often  termed  the  "  Longicorns  "  or 
"  Capricorn s,"  is  a  large  and  interesting  one,  including  many  species  of 
great  size,  others  of  rare  beauty  and  all  very  injurious.  They  may  be 
recognized  at  a  glance  by  their  long  and  usually  slender  antennae, 
which  in  a  few  species  are  more  than  twice  the  length  of  the  body,  and 
which  curve  backward  like  the  horns  of  a  goat.  The  form  of  the 
body  is  elongate  sub-cylindrical,  in  some  species  tapering  toward  the 
hinder  end.  The  head  is  broad,  vertical,  and  furnished  with  strong- 
jaws.  The  eyes  are  quite  peculiar,  being  lunate  (hollowed  out)  on 
the  inner  side,  with  the  antennae  implanted  in  the  hollows.  The  basal 
joint  of  the  latter  is  almost  invariably  longer  than  any  of  the  succeed- 
ing joints,  which  gradually  taper  to  a  point.  The  thorax  is  seldom  as 
broad  as  the  hind  body,  and  is  square  or  barrel-shaped,  often  with  one 
or  two  spines  or  teeth  on  each  side.  The  legs  are  long,  but  scarcely  so 
well  flitted  for  running  as  for  affording  a  secure  support  to  the  insect 
when  at  rest.  The  joints  of  the  feet  are  four  in  number,  spongy  or 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  67 

cushioned  beneath,  and  the  third  one  bilobed.  These  beetles  have  the 
power  of  producing  a  squeaking  sound  by  rubbing  the  pro-thorax  up 
and  down  over  the  bases  of  the  wing  covers.  This  is  done  not  only  as 
an  expression  of  fear  when  captured,  but  for  amusement  or  as  a  call  to 
their  mates,  and  is  termed  Stridulation.  The  females  have  an  oviposi- 
tor that  can  be  teles copically  extended  to  a  considerable  length,  in 
order  to  place  the  eggs  deep  into  holes  or  into  the  crevices  of  bark  of 
the  trees  in  which  the  larvae  feed.  The  colors  of  many  species  are 
very  bright,  disposed  in  stripes  or  bands  or  in  dotted  patterns  on  a 
plain  ground.  They  are  for  the  most  part  nocturnal,  and  conceal  them- 
selves carefully  during  the  day.  A  few,  however,  are  exceptional,  and 
may,  at  certain  seasons,  be  found  on  flowers  or  enjoying  the  sunshine 
on  the  trunks  of  trees. 

The  larvae  are  all  wood-borers,  and  many  of  them  do  great  damage 
to  fruit  and  forest  trees,  and  in  vineyards.  They  are  fleshy,  white 
cylindrical  grubs,  terminating  bluntly  behind,  with  all  the  joints  sepa- 
rated by  deep  incisions,  and  the  first  thoracic  one  much  enlarged  and 
covered  with  a  horny  plate.  The  head  is  small  and  usually  dark  brown, 
the  greater  part  of  it  comprised  in  a  pair  of  powerful  jaws,  capable  of 
cutting  into  the  hardest  wood.  A  few  of  these  larvae  have  the  usual 
number  of  very  small  thoracic  legs,  but  the  majority  have  no  legs  at  all, 
and  move  up  and  down  in  their  burrows  by  alternate  contractions  and 
extensions  of  the  body,  and  by  means  of  the  hunched  segments.  It  is 
a  habit  with  some  species  to  keep  one  end  of  the  burrow  open,  through 
which  to  push  out  the  chips  and  castings,  and  their  presence  is  often 
betrayed  by  the  little  heaps  of  sawdust  on  the  bark.  The  great  ma- 
jority, however,  leave  their  castings  in  a  compact  mass  behind  them  as 
they  proceed.  Many  of  these  larvae  grow  for  two  or  three  years,  and  a 
few  even  longer.  When  ready  for  transformation  they  tunnel  their 
way  to  the  surface,  leaving  a  slight  shell  of  the  bark  entire  over  the 
place  of  exit.  They  then  retreat  to  a  safe  distance  and  form  a  cell  or 
nest  of  wood  fibers  and  castings,  and  here  assume  the  pupae  form.  In 
this  stage  they  are  soft  and  white,  sometimes  almost  transparent,  but 
with  each  member  of  the  future  beetle  clearly  defined,  and  they  have  a 
peculiar  mummified  appearance.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three  weeks  the 
membranous  casings  are  slipped  off  and  the  perfect  beetle,  but  in  a 
very  soft  and  imperfectly  colored  condition,  is  disclosed.  The  insect 
remains  quiet  in  its  cell  for  some  time  until  all  the  parts  are  hardened, 
after  which  it  breaks  through  the  slight  door  and  enters  upon  the  en- 
joyments find  business  of  its  mature  life. 


68 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 


In  the  genus  Prionus  we  find  several  very  large,  dark-brown  spe- 
cies, whose  larvse,  measuring  two  and  one-half  or  three  inches  inlength^ 
are  quite  frequently  found  boring  roots  of  grape-vines,  apple  trees  and 
similar  plants. 

Saperda  Candida,  Fab.,  a  beautiful  species  of  a  cinnamon-brown 
color  above,  with  two  broad  milk-white   stripes   extending   the  whole 
length  of  the  body,  is  the  parent  of  the  much  execrated  "  Round-headed 
Apple  tree  borer"  (see  Fig.  26),  which  does  so  much  damage  in  or 
chards  by  boring  the  trees  near  the  ground. 

The  Twig-girdler  (Oncideres  cingulatus,  Say.)  has  the  bad  habit  of 
girdling  the  twigs  in  which  the  female  lays  her  eggs,  it  attacks  both 
fruit  and  forest  trees.  Maples,  Locust  and  Hickory  are  bored  by  the 
larvae  of  a  group  of  beautiful  beetles  of  the  genus  Clytus.  They  are 
rather  large,  of  dark  colors,  ornamented  with  curved  and  V-shaped 
[Fig.  27.]  transverse  bands  of  bright  yellow,  pale  green  or  white. 

The  Leaf-beetles  (CHR^s- 
0  OMELID^E)   constitute    an    irn- 
e  mense  group  of  small  to  medi- 
b  urn-sized  species,  many  of  which 
c  display  brilliant  and  beautiful 
colors.     The    scientific    name 
given  to  the  family,  from  words 
signifying  a  golden   apple,   re- 
fers to  this  quality  as  well 
to  the  round  or  oval  form  so  common  among  them.     The 

coioSgdun-brownhead  if*  verv  short  and  much  narrower  than  the  pro-tho- 
and  dingy- white.  rax ;  the  antennae  somewhat  enlarged  toward  the  tips  and 
set  wide  apart;  the  eyes  are  round  and  prominent ;  the  legs  are  short 
and  stout;  the  joints  of  the  feet  are  four  in  number,  each  broad  and 
cushioned  beneath.  The  larvae  are  of  a  variety  of  forms,  but  mostly 
broad  and  thick,  with  well-developed  thoracic  legs.  They  feed  exposed 
upon  the  surface  of  leaves,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  few  of  the  smaller  spe- 
cies, they  mine  between  the  upper  and  under  cuticles. 

Among  these  beetles  we  find  such  notorious  pests  as  the  Colorado 
Potato  beetle  f  Doryphora  10-llneata,  Say),  the  Asparagus  beetle  (Grio- 
ceiisa  asparagi,  Linn.),  the  Striped  Cucumber  beetle  (Diabrotica  vittata, 
Fab.),  the  Streaked  Cottonwood  beetle  (Plagioperma  scripta,  Fab.),  and 
great  numbers  of  others. 

The  Tortoise  beetles,  which  are  the  especial  enemies  of  the  Sweet 
potato  plant  and  of  other  Convolvulacas  are  round  or  oval  species  from 
one-fifth  to  one-fourth  inch  in  length,  of  a  flattened  oval  form,  with  a 


AsparagU8  beetie~«,  beetle; 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  69 

membranous  margin  around  the  thorax  and  wing  covers  which  almost 
conceals  the  legs.  The  coloring  is  extremely  beautiful — in  one  species, 
Cassida  aurichalcea,  being  at  times  of  the  most  brilliantly  burnished 
gold,  and  again  with  opalescent  reflections.  Other  species  are  mottled 
or  striped  in  gold  and  brown. 

The  flat,  oval  larvae  have  a  spiny  surface  and  lateral  margin,  and 
the  body  terminates  in  a  pair  of  strong  bristles,  upon  which  during 
growth  the  cast-off  skins  and  excrement  are  accumulated  and  held  up 
over  the  body  to  shield  it  from  the  sun  and  from  its  enemies. 

The  larvae  of  species  belonging  to  the  genera  Chlamys  and.CWwop- 
tera  make  cases,  which,  when  feeding,  they  carry  over  or  drag  behind 
them,  and  to  which  they  retire  for  repose. 

Another  group  with  whose  destructive  work  the  farmer  and  gar- 
dener is  only  too  well  acquainted,  contains  the  Flea-beetles.  These  are 
mostly  small  species,  characterized  by  their  greatly  expanded  and  thick- 
ened thighs,  which  give  them  their  remarkable  jumping  power.  Haltica, 
chalybea,  Illig.,  is  a  dark  steel-blue  species,  often  very  troublesome  on 
grape-vines.  The  Cucumber-flea  beetle  Crepidodera  cucumeris,  Har.,  is 
one  of  the  pests  of  the  Gourd  family  of  plants.  The  Stripped  Flea 
beetles  (Phyllotreta  sinuata,  Steph.,  and  P.  vittata,  Fabr.),  riddle  the 
leaves  of  turnips,  radishes  and  cabbage  with  small,  round  holes.  The 
larvae  feed  under  ground  on  the  roots  or  mine  the  leaves  of  plants  be- 
longing in  the  same  family  with  the  vegetables  mentioned.  Haltica 
(GraptoderaJ  foliacea,  Lee.,  is  very  destructive  in  the  far  western  States 
to  the  foliage  of  young  apple  trees. 

The  Seed  weevils  (BRTJCHID^)  are  a  small  family  of  beetles  that 
breed  in  seeds  and  grain.  They  are  of  broad  oval,  flattened  form,  from 
one-tenth  to  one-fifth  inch  long.  The  antennae  are  rather  short  and 
serrate,  and  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  protrudes  beyond  the  wing-covers. 
The  Pea  weevil  (BrucJius  pisi,  Linn.),  the  Bean  weevil  (B.  obsoletus,  Say.), 
and  the  Grain  weevil  (B.  granarius,  Linn.,)  are  the  most  destructive 
species,  whose  habits  are  well  known  to  every  farmer  and  gardener. 

Section  HETEROMERA. 

In  this  somewhat  isolated  group  of  beetles,  we  find  the  chief 
peculiarity  in  the  feet,  the  front  and  middle  pair  of  which  are  five- 
jointed  and  the  hind  pair  four-jointed.  These  are  not  cushioned  be- 
neath, as  are  those  of  the  Leaf  beetles.  Many  of  the  species  are 
exceedingly  interesting  to  the  biologist  on  account  of  their  peculiar 
development,  which  has  one  or  two  seemingly  retrograde  stages  in  those 
of  parasitic  habits. 


70  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

[Fig.  29.]  The  Heteromerous  beetles  are  separated  into  quite  a 

number  of  families,  of  which  two  only  are  of  especial  inter- 
est to  the  economic  entomologist,  viz.:  The  Oil  or  Blister 
beetles  (MELOIDJE)  and  the  Meal  beetles  (TENEBRIONIDJE). 
The  Blister  beetles  are  rather  elegantly  formed  insects  and 
differ  from  all  others  in  having  the  somewhat  triangular 
head  set  on  vertically  with  a  distinct  neck.  The  wing  covers 
Riiey6"  and  entire  body  wall  are  rather  thin  and  leathery.  The 
colors  are  satin  black  or  plain  ash-gray,  or  black,  margined  with  pale 
gray,  or  striped  longitudinally  with  yellow.  They  are  diurnal  insects, 
and,  in  their  perfect  state,  feed  voraciously  on  the  foliage  of  the  potato 
and  also  on  certain  kinds  of  flowers,  and  in  the  early  autumn  may  be 
found  on  golden  rod.  The  larvae,  which  undergo  what  is  termed  'hyper- 
metamorphosis,  exist  in  two  forms,  and  are  parasitic  in  the  nests  of  bees 
and  on  the  eggs  of  locusts  (grasshoppers).  They  belong  to  the  genera 
Cantharis  and  Epicauta. 

Among  the  Meal  beetles,  the  most  abundant  and  pernicious  spe- 
cies is  Tenebrio  molitor,  Linn,  a  plain  black  or  very  dark  brown  spe- 
cies, about  three-fifths  inch  long,  rather  slender  and  elongate,  and 
without  any  striking  characteristics.  The  larvae  are  horny  skinned, 
slender,  cylindrical  worms,  with  well-developed  feet,  and  are  great 
pests  in  warehouses  and  storerooms  where  ground  grain  is  kept. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  71 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
Order  COLEOPTERA.     Sub-Order  RHYNCOPHORA. 

SNOUT-BEETLES    AND   BARK-BORERS. 

[Fig.  30.] 


Apple  curculio— («)  natural  size;  (5)  side 
view;  (c)  back  view,  enlarged — after  Riley. 

The  snout-beetles  are  all  included,  by  the  most  recent  writers  on  the 
subject,  in  seven  or  eight  very  distinct  families,  but  the  species  are 
very  numerous.  None  of  the  North  American  species  are  of  more 
than  medium  size,  while  the  majority  are  small — under  one-fourth  inch 
in  length.  The  great  peculiarity  of  these  insects  is  found  in  the  pro- 
longation of  the  front  part  of  the  head  into  a  beak  or  snout,  termed  the 
rostrum,  which  is  either  broad  and  short,  or  long  and  thin,  in  some  spe- 
cies straight,  in  others  curved.  The  small  but  sharp  jaws  are  situated 
at  the  end  of  the  beak,  and  the  labrum  and  palpi  are  but  very  slightly 
developed  or  wanting.  The  antennae  arise  from  the  sides  of  the  beak  ; 
they  are  slender,  elbowed  or  bent  in  the  middle,  and  end  in  a  knob  or 
club.  The  rostrum  is  often  grooved  at  the  sides  for  the  reception  of 
these  organs.  The  eyes  are  small  and  round.  The  body  is  compact 
and  often  wedge-shaped,  and  in  many  species  the  surface  is  ridged, 
pitted  and  raised  into  tubercles.  The  feet  are  four-jointed,  each  joint 
strongly  bilobed  and  cushioned  beneath. 

When  disturbed  or  frightened,  most  of  the  species  "play  'possum,'7 
feigning  death  most  skillfully  and  persistently.  The  antennse  sink  into 
the  grooves  in  the  beak,  the  latter,  where  its  structure  permits,  is  bent 
under,  close  to  the  body,  as  are  also  the  legs,  and  the  insect  drops  to 
the  ground  motionless,  where  its  color  and  shape  so  closely  simulate  a 
dried  bud,  bit  of  twig  or  seed,  that  only  the  most  practiced  eye  can 
detect  it. 


72  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  great  majority  of  these  beetles  are  fruit  and  nut-eaters.  The- 
beak  is  used  to  drill  the  holes  in  which  the  eggs  are  placed.  The  larvae 
are  fat,  white,  thin-skinned  and  wrinkled  grubs,  without  feet  or  prolegs- 

except  in  one  small  and  peculiar  group,  the  Br3nthians,  which  are 

wood  borers.  They  are  usually  in  a  more  or  less  curved  position  from 
which  some  species,  like  the  Apple-curculio,  can 
never  straighten  themselves.  Some,  when  full 
fed,  work  their  way  out  of  the  fruit  or  nuts  and 
drop  to  the  ground,  into  which  the  burrow  to 
transform ;  others  change  where  they  have  fed. 

Among  the  more  important  families  are  the  Fruit 
and  Nut  weevils  (OUBCULTONIDJE),  the  Rice  weev- 
ils and  "  Bill  bugs  "  (  CALANDRID^;  ),  and  the  Leaf- 
rollers  (  ATTALABJDJE). 

In  the  amount  and  value  of  the  products  de- 
stroyed by  it,  the  Peach  or  Plum  curculio  (Cono- 

Larva  and  papa  of  Apple  __  .. 

cnrcuiio.--AfterRiiey.  trachelus  nenuphar,  Herbst)  may  well  head  the  list 
of  the  pernicious  species.  Its  characters  and  habits  are  so  well  known 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  recapitulate  them  here. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  this  species  is  rivaled  in  the  injury 
done  to  stone  fruits  by  a  slightly  larger,  smoother  species  called  the* 
Plum  Gouger  (Cocoturus  scutellaris  Lee.)  The  Apple  curculio  (Antho- 
nomus  quadrigibbus,  Say),  represented  in  Fig.  30,  breeds  in  the  fruit  and 
passes  its  transformations  without  leaving  it.  The  Nut  weevils  are 
nearly  all  included  in  the  genus  Balininus.  They  are  smooth,  oval  bee- 
tles of  an  ochreous-drab  color,  with  a  very  long,  slender,  dark  brown 
beak,  with  which  they  drill  holes  in  the  green  nuts  for  the  reception  of 
their  eggs. 

The  principal  genus  of  the  CALA.NDRID^  is  Sphenophorus,  in  which 
are  found  the  Corn  Bill-bugs  which  often  do  so  much  injury  to  Indian 
corn  by  boring  the  roots  and  lower  part  of  the  stalk.  The  Eice  weevil 
fCalandra  oryzal,  Linn.)  is  injurious  to  stored  rice  and  other  grain  in  the 
Southern  States.  The  small  beetles  composing  the  family  Attalabidto 
breed  on  the  leaves  of  Oak,  Rhus  and  other  trees.  After  placing  an  egg 
a  portion  of  the  leaf  is  rolled  into  a  knapsack-like  case,  in  which  the 
larva  develops,  feeding  on  the  partially  withered  portions  of  the  en- 
closed leaf. 

The  Bark-beetles  (SCOLYTID^E)  are  small,  hard,  cylindrical  insects 
of  a  shining  black  or  brown  color,  the  abdomen  appearing  as  though 
cut  off  obliquely  behind,  encircled  by  a  ring  of  little  points  or  teeth. 
The  antennae  are  very  short  and  knobbed  at  the  tip.  The  larvae  are 
much  like  those  of  curculios,  but  have  stronger  jaws  to  adapt  them  for 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 


73 


wood-boring.  They  bore  between  the  bark  and  solid  wood,  several  of 
them  working  from  a  common  center — their  burrows,  which  gradually 
widen  to  the  place  of  exit,  radiating  in  all  directions,  making  fanciful 
carvings  on  the  inner  side  of  the  bark  and  the  surface  of  the  wood. 
They  often  prove  very  destructive  in  forests,  to  both  pine  and  hard- 
wood trees.  A  species  introduced  from  Europe  ( Scolytus  rugulosus, 
Eatz.)  has  recently  excited  alarm  among  the  fruit-growers  of  Illinois,  by 
working  under  the  bark  of  twigs  and  young  branches,  principally  of 
stone  fruits,  producing  an  effect  like  blight,  and  in  some  cases  causing 
the  death  of  the  tree.  Prof.  Forbes,  who  has  published  the  first  account 
of  its  injuries  in  this  country,  finds  it  very  generally  distributed  and 
promising  to  become  a  very  serious  enemy  to  all  varieties  of  fruit  trees. 


CHAPTEE  XX. 
Order  III.     LEPIDOPTERA. 

[Fig.  32.] 


Asterias  butterfly,  larva  and  chrysalis— after  Tenney. 

Among  the  butterflies  and  moths  we  find  the  most  attractive,  and 
with  a  few  exceptions,  the  most  conspicuous  members  of  the  class  of 
insects.  They  are  recognized  without  difficulty  by  their  broad  and  often 


74  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

gaily  colored  wings,  their  soft,  hairy  bodies,  small  heads,  prominent 
eyes  and  antennae,  and  in  most  species,  the  long,  coiled  tongue. 

In  the  Lepidoptera  the  three  principal  divisions  of  the  body  are 
distinct,  but  the  neck  is  very  short  and  there  is  no  slender  pedicel  con- 
necting the  thorax  and  abdomen.  The  head  is  small,  but  broad  in  pro- 
portion to  its  length,  and  moves  freely  on  the  neck  ;  the  eyes  are  hemi- 
spherical and  of  various  colors,  sometimes  sparsely  hairy. 

Two  ocelli  are  present  in  some  of  the  moths,  but  are  concealed 
under  the  hairy  scales  that  clothe  the  top  and  front  of  the  head,  and 
probably  are  not  of  much  use  as  organs  of  vision. 

The  antennae  are  always  conspicuous.  They  are  either  filiform, 
feathered  or  club-shaped.  The  upper  jaws  are  not  developed  in  the 
perfect  insects,  and  the  lower  jaws  (maxillae)  are  united  and  length- 
ened out  to  form  a  horny  tube  called  the  tongue  or  lingua,  which  is 
coiled  up  like  a  watch  spring  when  not  in  use.  The  palpi — at  least  one 
pair  of  them — are  large  and  plumy  and  curve  up  in  front  of  the  face  on 
each  side  of  the  tongue. 

The  usual  form  of  the  body  is  long  and  slender,  tapering  somewhat 
in  both  directions.  The  pro-thorax  is  a  very  narrow  ring,  scarcely  vis- 
ible on  top  except  for  the  two  little  knobs  which  it  bears,  from  which 
arise  small  tufts  of  hairs.  The  mezo-thorax  is  the  most  developed  seg- 
ment of  the  body,  bearing  the  fore-wings  and  the  middle  legs,  and  the 
two  little  lappets  (patagia)  that  cover  the  bases  of  the  wings.  The 
meta-thorax  is  also  quite  large,  and  has  attached  to  it  the  hind  legs  and 
hind  wings.  The  legs  are  weak  and  slender,  and  are  used  chiefly  as 
supports  for  the  body  when  the  insect  is  at  rest,  and  only  rarely  for 
walking  or  crawling.  They  are  clothed  with  hair-like  scales,  and  have 
one  or  two  pairs  of  spurs  at  or  near  the  outer  end  of  the  shank  (tibia). 
The  feet  have  five  slender  cylindrical  joints,  and  terminate  in  a  pair  of 
minute  claws. 

The  wings,  in  this  order  of  insects,  are  the  most  striking  features 
of  the  organism,  and  of  first  importance  in  every  respect.  They  are 
formed  of  membrane  supported  by  numerous  strong  veins  (see  Fig.  5), 
and  covered  with  a  powdery  substance  which,  when  magnified,  is  found 
to  consist  of  minute  scales  narrowly  or  broadly  oblong,  attached  by  a 
little  stem;  they  are  notched  on  the  outer  edge  and  overlap  each  other 
in  irregular  rows,  like  the  shingles  on  a  roof.  It  is  in  the  brilliant  colors 
and  elegant  patterns  formed  by  the  arrangement  of  these  scales,  that 
the  beauty  of  the  butterflies  and  moths  chiefly  resides. 

The  patagia  are  covered  with  long  hairs,  and  fit  over  the  bases  of 
the  upper  wings  like  epaulettes.  In  their  perfect  state  lepidopterous 
insects  are  rather  short-lived,  if  we  except  the  comparatively  few  species 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  75 

that  hibernate.  The  only  nourishment  they  require  is  an  occasional 
sip  of  nectar  from  flowers  or  water  from  a  dew-drop  or  from  the  moist 
earth.  Their  business  in  life  is  to  seek  their  mates  and  place  their  eggs 
upon  the  plants  or  other  substances  upon  which  their  larvae  subsist. 
The  eggs  of  butterflies  are  usually  conical  and  ridged  or  fretted  on  the 
surface,  and  as  a  rule  are  deposited  singly,  while  those  of  moths  are 
mostly  spherical  or  circular,  and  deposited  in  clusters. 

The  transformations  in  this  order  are  complete,  and  more  easily 
observed  than  in  most  other  insects.  The  larvae  are  all  properly  termed 
caterpillars,  but  the  smooth  species  are  often  popularly  designated 
"  worms,"  as  for  example,  "  cut-worms,"  "  canker-worms,"  "  bud- 
worms,"  etc.  Like  the  parent  insects,  they  vary  greatly  in  form,  size 
and  color.  The  body  is  usually  cylindrical,  composed  of  twelve  or 
thirteen  segments,  besides  the  head.  The  latter  is  covered  by  a  horny 
plate,  often  divided  in  the  middle  by  a  triangular  "face,"  which  has  its 
base  at  the  labrum.  The  jaws  are  broad  and  strong,  serrated  or  toothed 
on  the  edges,  the  under  lip  (labium)  is  well  developed,  but  the  maxillae 
and  palpi  are  in  most  species  quite  rudimentary.  The  antennas  are 
represented  by  a  pair  of  three  or  four  jointed  tubercles,  and  the  eyes 
by  three  or  four  little  dots  or  simple  eyes,  which*  probably  enable  them 
to  distinguish  daylight  from  darkness.  As  Dr.  Packard  says,  "  this  is 
useful  information  from  a  caterpillar's  stand-point,  as  most  of  them  hide 
by  day  and  feed  by  night."  The  spineret  is  a  small  colnical  tube  on  the 
lower  lip,  through  which  a  gummy  substance,  secreted  by  most  cater- 
pillars, is  drawn  out  and  becomes  a  fine  silken  thread,  of  which  these 
insects  make  great  use  in  forming  their  nests  or  cocoons,  in  attaching 
themselves  when  molting,  or  suspending  themselves  in  the  air  as  a 
means  of  escape  from  their  enemies. 

Caterpillars,  with  very  few  exceptions,  have  from  ten  to  sixteen 
legs — six  of  which,  on  the  thoracic  joints,  are  termed  the  true  or  tho- 
racic legs,  and  are  pointed  and  horny ;  the  others,  which  support  the 
hinder  part  of  the  body,  are  broad  fleshy  props,  and  are  termed  the 
false  legs  or  pro-legs;  they  terminate  in  a  circle  of  minute  hooks,  by 
which  their  possessor  is  enabled  to  cling  to  any  surface  upon  which  it 
wishes  to  crawl.  Some  caterpillars  have  the  surface  of  the  body 
smooth,  while  in  others  it  is  covered  with  hair  or  protected  by  clusters 
of  sharp  branching  spines,  or  roughened  by  warts  and  tubercles.  On 
the  top  of  the  first  joint,  just  back  of  the  head,  there  is  in  many  spe- 
cies a  clearly  defined  horny  plate  called  the  cervical  collar  or  shield,  and 
a  similar  plate  at  the  hinder  end  forms  the  anal  or  supra- anal  plate. 


76  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Iii  the  process  of  growth,  lepidoptero  us  larvae  mo  It  or  change  their 
skins  from  three  to  five  times.  The  operation  is  as  follows:  The 
hindmost  or  anal  pro-legs  are  made  fast  to  some  rough  surface,  or  to  a 
mat  of  silk  prepared  for  the  purpose.  The  larva  then  rests  and  fasts 
for  a  certain  length  of  time.  Presently  the  head  plates  begin  to  sepa- 
rate from  the  neck,  and  a  longitudinal  slit  appears  on  the  top  of  the 
thoracic  segments,  which  gradually  widens  until  the  fore  part  of  the 
body  can  be  forced  through,  after  which,  by  alternate  expansions  and 
contractions,  the  outgrown  skin  is  made  to  slip  backward  until,  by  a 
final  effort,  the  anal  legs  are  withdrawn  and  the  crumpled  mass  of  cast- 
off  skin,  termed  the  exuvium  (plural,  exumce),  is  left  attached  to  the 
leaf  or  bark,  while  the  caterpillar,  in  its  new  dress — which  is,  in  some 
cases,  quite  differently  colored  and  ornamented  from  the  out-grown 
one — crawls  off  in  search  of  food  with  which  to  renew  its  exhausted 
strength. 

The  great  majority  of  caterpillars  subsist  on  the  leaves,  flowers  and 
fruit  of  trees,  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants.  Of  these  they  consume 
vast  quantities  every  year,  often  partially  or  entirely  destroying  the 
most  valuable  crops  in  satisfying  their  voracious  appetites.  A  few 
species  infest  drugs  and  grocers'  wares  and  some  gnaw  furs  and  woolen 
goods. 

When  full  grown,  caterpillars  cease  to  feed,  and  seek  some  place 
in  which  they  will  be  concealed  from  their  enemies  while  unable  either 
to  escape  or  defend  themselves.  In  this  they  succeed  so  well  that  it 
is  but  rarely  that  the  pupae  are  discovered  by  any  but  practiced  eyes. 

Lepidopterous  pupae  are  called  chrysalides.  They  are  of  various 
shapes,  some  being  angular  and  irregular  in  outline,  and  have  the  sur- 
face roughened  with  humps  and  protuberances,  while  others  are  smooth, 
oval  or  oblong  and  highly  polished.  The  integument  is  horny  or  shelly 
in  its  nature,  composed  of  chitine,si  substance  which  enters  largely  into 
the  composition  of  the  body-wall  of  insects  in  all  stages  of  develop- 
ment. Each  member  is  not  encased  in  a  separate  sheath,  as  with  the 
Hymenoptera  and  Coleoptera,  but  the  outlines  of  the  parts  can,  in  most 
species,  be  distinguished  through  the  case  in  which  they  are  enclosed. 
The  chrysalides  of  many  species  have  no  covering  or  outer  envelope, 
but  are  simply  attached  by  bands  of  silk  to  some  surface.  Others  are 
enclosed  in  thick  cocoons,  or  hidden  within  rolled-up  leaves,  or  formed 
in  earthen  cells  several  inches  under  ground.  The  pupa  state  varies 
in  duration  from  eight  or  ten  days  to  several  months,  according  to  the 
habit  of  the  species  or  the  season  of  the  year. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  77 

The  Lepidoptera  cannot  be  so  readily  classified  by  the  beginner  as 
the  bees  and  beetles,  although  the  primary  groups  are  not  difficult  to 
distinguish.     The  first  division  is  into  two  sections  or  sub-orders: 
I.    BUTTERFLIES  (Rtiopalocera— club-horns). 

II.     MOTHS  (Heterocera — variable  horns). 

A  glance  at  the  antennse  serves  to  show  us  to  which  of  these 
groups  an  insect  belongs.  In  the  butterflies  these  organs  are  stiff, 
thread-like,  and  either  abruptly  or  gradually  enlarged  at  the  tip,  so  that 
they  always  terminate  in  a  knob  or  club.  The  antennae  of  moths,  on  the 
other  hand,  no  matter  what  their  general  form  may  be,  whether 
feathered  or  filiform,  or  spindle-shaped,  invariably  end  in  a  point.  Be- 
sides the  antenna3  there  are  many  other  characters  which  separate  the 
insects  composing  these  two  divisions.  In  the  butterflies  the  body  is 
usually  small  and  slender  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  wings,  while 
in  many  moths  it  is  stout  and  clumsy;  the  fore  and  hind  wings  of  but- 
terflies are  not  attached  during  flight,  while  those  of  moths  are  held 
together  near  the  base  by  a  bristle  termed  a  frenulum  on  the  second- 

• 

aries,  which  fits  into  a  loop  or  socket  on  the  inner  margin  of  the  pri- 
maries. The  butterflies  are  diurnal  insects,  while  most  of  the  moths 
fly  at  night  or  during  the  morning  and  evening  twilight.  When  at  rest 
butterflies  hold  the  wings,  at  least  one  pair  of  them,  erect,  with  the 
under  surfaces  exposed ;  the  moths  on  the  contrary  close  the  wings 
either  flat  or  roof-like  over  the  body,  with  the  upper  pair  entirely  con- 
cealing the  under  pair,  except  in  one  family,  where  both  are  spread 
out. 

While  an  entomologist  rarely  mistakes  a  butterfly  larva  for  that  of 
a  moth,  or  vice  versa,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  give  a  list  of  the  char- 
acters by  which  they  can  be  distinguished.  The  chrysalides  of  butter- 
flies are  usually  unprotected  by  any  sort  of  cover  or  cocoon,  and  are 
very  angular  and  irregular  in  outline,  or  are  brightly  colored,  while 
those  of  moths  are  protected  in  cocoons  of  silk,  or  in  rolled  leaves,  or 
hidden  in  the  earth,  and  are  mostly  smooth  and  oval  or  oblong  in  out- 
line, and  in  no  instance  display  brilliant  or  metallic  colors. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  entomology  the  term  "  moth"  is 
not  restricted  to  the  few  small  insects  that  breed  in  furs,  woolens  and 
similar  substances,  but  is  used  to  designate  the  greater  proportion  of 
the  scale-winged  insects,  without  regard  to  size  or  habit.  The  gigantic 
Oecropia,  whose  wings  expand  about  six  inches,  and  whose  body  is  as 
thick  as  one's  finger,  is  as  much  a  "  moth  "  as  is  the  tiny  creature  that 
sometimes  flutters  out  of  closets  or  up  from  the  borders  of  carpets,  to 
the  disturbance  of  the  thrifty  housekeeper. 


78  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

OHAPTEK  XXI. 
Order  LEPIDOPTERA.    Sub-Order  R  H  o  PAL  o  c  ERA 

BUTTERFLIES. 

[Fig.  33.] 


6 

Hackberry  butterfly,  Apatura-elyton,  with  larva  and  chrysalis.    After  Riley. 

Of  all  the  insect  tribes  the  butterflies  are  the  popular  favorites. 
None  of  the  prejudice  with  which  insects  are  generally  regarded  seems 
to  attach  to  them.  Used  by  the  classic  writers  to  symbolize  the  soul, 
they  have  ever  continued  to  be  favorites  of  the  poets,  and  are  associated 
with  whatever  is  most  airily  graceful  and  beautiful  in  nature. 

The  larvae  of  butterflies  feed  exclusively  on  vegetation,  each  species 
being  restricted  to  one,  or  at  most  to  two  or  three  kinds  of  plants.  In 
their  general  form  they  do  not  vary  so  much  as  the  larvae  of  moths, 
being  all  more  or  less  cylindrical  and  always  possessing  the  full  com- 
plement of  six  legs  and  ten  prolegs.  The  head,  though  not  always  large, 
is  quite  distinct,  usually  with  a  somewhat  fretted  or  stippled  surface,  and 
in  a  few  species,  adorned  with  branching  horns  (see  Fig.  335),  or  spiny 
tubercles.  The  surface  of  the  body  is  in  some  species  smooth  and 
velvety,  in  others  bearing  fleshy  horns  and  protuberances  or  covered 
with  spines. 

The  pupae  are  naked,  except  in  the  species  constituting  one  family, 
where  they  are  slightly  enclosed  in  threads  of  silk.  They  are,  as  a  rule, 
very  angular,  especially  toward  the  anterior  end,  and  are  either  pendent 
by  the  tail,  or  are  supported  in  an  upright  position  by  a  band  of  silk 
which  the  larva,  before  changing,  contrives  to  weave  across  its  back. 

Some  of  the  characters  by  which  butterflies  are  grouped  into 
families  and  genera  are  found  in  the  outline  and  venation  of  the  wings, 
the  shape  of  the  club  of  the  antennae  and  of  the  palpi,  the  presence  or 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY,  79 

seeming  absence  of  the  front  pair  of  legs,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  in 
the  coloring. 

Butterflies  have  been  classified  and  re-classified  in  various  ways, 
by  different  naturalists,  each  system  based  on  some  excellent  ideas,  but 
all  more  or  less  defective.  The  simplest  arrangement  is  that  by  which 
they  are  all  grouped  into  four  comprehensive  families,  all  of  which 
are  numerously  represented  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  These 
families  are :  the  Swallow-tails  and  their  allies  (PAPILIONID.E),  the 
Browns  and  Silver-spots  (XYMPHALID^),  the  Little  Blues  and  Coppers 
(LYC^NID^E,)  and  the  Skippers  (HESPERID^S). 

The  Swallow-tails  (genus  Papilio  j  are  so  called  from  the  narrow 
lobes  or  tabs  into  which  the  outer  edges  of  the  lower  wings  are  pro- 
longed. Among  these  we  find  the  largest  and  some  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  our  native  species.  They  are  mostly  of  dark  colors — black  or 
rich  brown,  ornamented  on  the  wings  and  body  with  spots  and  streaks 
of  bright  yellow  and  orange,  with  shadings  or  lustrous  reflections  of 
blue  or  green.  The  club  of  the  antennae  is  rather  small ;  the  tibiae  of 
the  hind  legs  have  a  single  pair  of  spurs,  and  those  of  the  fore  legs  at 
the  base  a  sort  of  flap  covered  with  long  hairs.  All  the  species  in  the 
family  have  six  equally  developed  legs.  (  See  Fig.  32.) 

The  Iarv83  are,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  smooth,  cylindrical  cat- 
erpillars, often  gaily  striped  or  ornamented  with  eye-like  spots  (see 
Fig.  — ),  and  possess  a  distinguishing  character  in  a  Y-shaped  scent 
organ  (osmaterium)  of  an  orange  color,  which  can  be  protruded  at  will 
and  emits  a  disagreeable  odor.  It  is  used  to  frighten  away  parasitic 
enemies.  This  appendage  is  peculiar  to  the  larvae  of  the  true  Papilios, 
and  when  the  insect  is  quiet,  is  completely  retracted  under  the  edge  of 
the  segment  next  the  head.  The  larva  of  Papilio  asterias  feeds  on  the 
foliage  of  carrots,  parsley,  caraway  and  other  umbeliferous  plants. 
The  chrysalis  is  marked  in  wood  brown  and  white,  and  has  the  form 
represented  in  Fig.  32.  The  butterfly  is  black,  with  bluish  shadings, 
and  is  ornamented  with  several  rows  of  bright  yellow  dots  near  the 
outer  edges  of  the  wings.  The  Turnus  butterfly  ( Papilio  turnus.  Linn.) 
is  one  of  the  largest  and  commonest  species,  expanding  over  four 
inches.  It  differs  from  all  its  congeners  in  having  the  ground  color  of 
the  wings  bright  yellow,  but  crossed  by  broad  dashes  and  streaks  of 
black,  and  with  a  black  border  in  which  are  set  lunate  yellow  spots. 
The  larva  is  deep  green,  and  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length 
deep  when  full  grown.  The  front  edge  of  the  second  joint  and  a  part  of 
the  fifth  joint  are  yellow,  and  on  each  side  of  the  fourth  joint  are  a 
couple  of  small  purple  spots.  The  chrysalis  is  in  various  shades  of 

E— 6 


80  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

brown,  in  shape  much  like  that  of  P.  asterias,  but  is  larger  and  has  a 
more  prominent  horn  projecting  forward  over  the  head.  The  larvae 
feed  on  a  variety  of  fruit  and  shade  trees,  and  are  sometimes  quite 
destructive.  There  are  eight  or  nine  North  American  species  of  Swal- 
low-tailed butterflies,  besides  several  quite  distinct  varieties,  all  of 
which  are  very  handsome. 

The  Garden  Whites  or  Cabbage  butterflies  (genus  Pieris}  include 
about  a  half  dozen  species,  among  which  are  found  several  very  serious 
pests  of  the  vegetable  garden.  They  are  of  rather  small  size,  expand- 
ing not  more  than  two  inches,  and  are  all  of  a  dingy  white  with  blackish 
margins  and  dustings,  or  are  more  or  less  thickly  spotted  with  grayish 
black.  The  larvae  are  slender,  cylindrical  caterpillars  with  a  rugose  or 
velvety  surface,  and  either  plain  green  or  with  a  striped  and  checkered 
pattern  in  dull  green,  black,  lilac  and  white. 

The  European  cabbage  butterfly  (Pieris  rapce,  Linn.)  was  accident- 
ally introduced  into  this  country  about  twenty  years  ago,  and  has  now 
become  naturalized  in  almost  every  section,  proving  very  destructive 
to  cabbages,  turnips  and  other  cruciferous  plants. 

The  Sulphur  yellows  (genus  ColiasJ  include  the  medium-sized,  gay 
yellow  and  black  or  orange  and  black  butterflies  that  are  so  numerous 
late  in  spring  and  early  in  autumn.  Their  larvae  are  of  a  green  color, 
with  a  velvety  surface,  and  many  of  them  have  a  lateral  band,  com- 
posed of  a  line  of  bright  crimson,  and  one  of  white,  extending  from 
the  second  to  the  eleventh  segments.  They  feed  upon  clover,  lucern 
and  other  leguminous  plants. 

The  Browns  and  Silver  Spots  composing  the  family  NYMPHALID^E 
are  called  the  "  four-footed  "  butterflies,  from  the  apparent  absence  of 
the  front  pair  of  legs.  If  carefully  examined  these  members  are  seen 
to  be  folded  and  closely  appressed  to  the  breast,  and  often  have  the 
tarsi  undeveloped.  The  majority  of  these  butterflies  are  of  large  size 
and  of  dark,  rich  colors,  many  species  being  elegantly  ornamented  on 
the  under  side  of  the  wings  with  silvery  spots.  The  larvae  of  most 
species  have  the  surface  covered  with  spines  or  raised  into  humps  and 
prominences.  The  pupae  are  always  suspended  by  the  tail  and  hang 
head  downward.  A  few  of  the  chrysalides  are  smooth  and  casket- 
shaped,  but  the  majority  are  characterized  by  many  angles  and  projec- 
tions. Nearly  all  are  "studded  with  golden  or  gem-like  spots,  which 
disappear  or  lose  their  luster  shortly  before  the  butterfly  emerges. 

The  manner  in  which  these  pupae  contrive  to  attach  themselves  to 
the  point  of  support  is  a  process  so  interesting  that  the  observer  is 
well  repaid  for  the  time  expended  in  watching  it.  It  may  be  briefly 
described  as  follows:  The  caterpillar,  when  ready  to  change,  spins  a 


OUTLINES    OE   ENTOMOLOGY.  81 

little  mat  or  tuft  of  silk  upon  some  convenient  surface.  Into  this  it 
entangles  the  hooks  of  the  hind  legs,  and  loosening  its  hold  in  front 
and  curling  up  the  head,  it  suffers  itself  to  drop  and  hang  by  these  anal 
pro-legs.  In  this  position  it  remains  from  twelve  to  thirty-six  hours. 
The  skin  then  bursts  open  just  back  of  the  head,  and  the  anterior  end 
of  the  chrysalis  is  protruded.  By  violent  exertion,  in  alternate  length- 
enings and  contractions,  the  larval  skin  is  shoved  backward  until  it 
forms  a  shriveled  mass  near  the  point  of  attachment.  The  crowning 
effort  is  now  to  be  made  in  withdrawing  the  tail  of  the  chrysalis  and 
fixing  it  into  the  little  mat  of  silk  prepared  for  it.  The  chrysalis,  it 
must  be  remembered,  is  not  yet  hard  and  stiff,  but  is  capable  of  con- 
siderable motion ;  accordingly,  by  a  sharp  contraction,  a  portion  of  the 
larval  skin  is  firmly  grasped  between  two  of  the  abdominal  joints,  and 
with  only  this  slight  hold  the  hinder  end  of  the  chrysalis  is  withdrawn 
from  the  old  skin,  and,  with  a  vigorous  thrust,  the  little  spike,  termed 
the  cremaster,  with  which  it  is  provided,  is  struck  sharply  into  the  tuft 
of  silk.  Sometimes  the  first  stroke  suffices  to  fix  it ;  in  other  cases 
two  or  three  efforts  are  required,  and,  occasionally,  there  is  utter  fail- 
ure and  the  chrysalis  drops  to  the  ground.  When  the  chrysalis  is  made 
fast  it  whirls  itself  rapidly  round  and  round  to  detach  the  larval  skin 
and  to  more  firmly  entangle  the  barbs  of  the  cremaster.  After  this 
the  chrysalis  contracts  and  hardens,  and  the  beautiful  colors  which 
characterize  the  particular  species  are  displayed. 

Among  toe  most  beautiful  and  most  easily  recognized  genera  of 
the  four-footed  butterflies  may  be  mentioned  Danais,  Argynnis,  Apa- 
tura,  Vanessa,  Orapta  and  Hipparchia.  The  Archippus  butterfly 
(Danais  archippus,  Fabr.)  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  abundant 
species.  The  wing  expanse  is  between  four  and  five  inches,  the  color 
a  bright  red-brown  with  black  veins  and  black  border  in  which  are  set 
two  rows  of  white  dots.  The  larva  feeds  on  the  milkweed  or  silkweed 
(Asc elepias},and  is  elegantly  colored  in  transverse  stripes  of  black,white 
and  yellow,  with  a  pair  of  black  velvety  horns  on  the  third  and  eleventh 
joints.  The  chrysalis  is  shaped  like  a  lady's  ear-drop,  and  is  of  a  clear 
green  color,  ornamented  with  black  and  gold. 

The  Argynnis  butterflies  have  broad  velvety  wings  of  a  tawny 
orange  color,  shaded  and  spotted  with  dark-brown  on  the  upper  sur- 
face, while  the  under  sides  are  resplendent  with  numerous  silvery  spots. 
In  these  species  the  antennae  terminate  in  a  large,  roundish  knob.  The 
larvae  are  covered  with  spines  and  feed  upon  violets. 

The  Hackberry  butterflies  (genus  Apatura)  are  of  a  dull  brown, 
mottled  with  white  and  black  spots.  The  eggs  of  A.  clyton  (see  Fig.  33) 


82  OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

are  laid  in  a  mass,  and  the  head  of  the  larva  bears  a  pair  of  branching 
horns. 

In  Vanessa  the  edges  of  the  wings  are  scalloped  and  angular  in 
outline.  The  palpi  are  large,  and  project  in- front  of  the  head  like  a 
beak.  The  beautiful  Antiopa  butterfly  (Vanessa  antiopa,  Linn),  which 
has  deep  purple,  buff-bordered  wings,  and  whose  larva  are  very  de- 
structive to  the  Lombardy  poplar  and  elm,  and  the  red  Admiral  (V. 
atalanta,  Linn),  distinguished  by  broad,  orange-red  stripes,  passing-  ob- 
liquely across  the  upper  wings  and  bordering  the  outer  edges  of  the 
lower  ones,  and  whose  larvae  feed  on  the  nettle,  belong  to  this  genus. 

The  genus  Orapta  may  be  recognized  by  the  very  jagged  outline  of 
the  wings.  The  upper  pair,  besides  being  notched,  are  deeply  hollowed 
out  on  the  outer  edge,  and  the  lower  pair  are  furnished  with  two  short 
"tails."  The  upper  surface  is  pale  reddish  brown,  mottled  with  large, 
irregular  spots  of  dark  brown.  Some  species  have  a  narrow  border  of 
pale  blue.  The  under  side  is  of  duller  colors,  with  a  single  silvery  or 
golden  mark.  These  butterflies  may  be  popularly  termed  the  "Punctu- 
ation" butterflies,  since,  from  the  punctuation-like  marks  on  the  under 
side  of  the  wings,  the  various  species  have  been  named  Grapta  comma, 
Orapta  interrogation**,  etc. 

The  genus  Hipparclila  contains  the  "Wood  butterflies,"  so  named 
from  the  fact  of  their  being  usually  found  in  groves  and  thickets,  and 
also  from  their  wood-brown  colors,  relieved  by  eye-like  spots. 

The  family  LYC^ENID^  contains  the  small  coppery  red  and  the 
blue  butterflies  often  seen  fluttering  about  pools  of  water  and  muddy 
places  by  road-sides. 

The  larvae  feed  on  grass,  are  smooth,  short  and  thick,  and  secure 
themselves  with  a  loop  in  an  upright  position,  when  about  to  transform. 
The  genus  Theckla  may  be  recognized  by  the  two  thread-like  tails  which 
ornament  each  of  the  hind  wings. 

The  HESPEBID^E  comprise  a  large  number  of  black  and  brown, 
dull-colored  butterflies,  mostly  of  small  size,  and  which  differ  in  so 
many  respects  from  the  other  EHOPALOCERA  that  they  seem  to  fur- 
nish the  connecting  link  between  the  true  butterflies  and  the  moths.  The 
body  is  generally  short  and  thick,  and  in  repose  only  the  fore  wings 
are  held  erect,  and  these  not  pressed  together,  while  the  hind  wings 
are  laid  flat  upon  the  back.  The  antennae  end  in  a  little  hook.  They 
fly  with  rapid,  jerky  motions,  often  alighting.  Hence  they  are  popu- 
larly denominated  "Skippers."  The  Iarva3  are  spindle-shaped,  with  a 
rough  surface,  a  small,  distinct  neck  and  a  large  head,  which  is  usually 
somewhat  heart-shaped  and  marked  with  two  or  more  conspicuous 
spots.  They  live  in  cases  which  they  form  by  folding  leaves  and  fast- 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 


83 


ening  them  in  place  with  what  look  like  long  stitches  of  coarse,  white 
silk.  They  leave  their  cases  at  night  to  feed,  and  when  one  case  is 
outgrown  they  construct  a  new  one.  They  change  to  pupae  within  their 
leafy  homes  and  further  enclosed  in  a  lace-like  silken  cocoon.  The 
chrysalis  is  smooth  and  oval,  often  covered  with  a  fine  powder  or 
"  bloom,"  and  is  suspended  by  the  tail.  The  Tityrus  skipper  (Euda- 
mus  tityrus,  Fabr.),  the  larva  of  which  feeds  on  the  locust  and  acacia, 
is  the  largest  and  best  known  species. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

Order  LEPIDOPTERA.     Sub-Order  HETEROCERA. 
MOTHS. 

Fi5.  34. 


Corn-worm  (Heliothis  a^migera) — after  Kiley;  a,  b, 
egg  magnified ;  c,  larva;  d,  pupa;  e,  f,  imago  or  moth. 

The  moths  greatly  exceed  the  butterflies  in  number  of  species  and 
individuals  and  in  diversity  of  size,  structure  and  habit.  Among  them 
may  be  found  some  (tropica?)  species  whose  expanded  wings  measure  a 
foot  from  tip  to  tip,  and  others  whose  wing  expanse  is  scarcely  one- 
eighth  inch.  Some  forms  are  slender  and  graceful,  and  can  scarcely 
be  distinguished  from  butterflies ;  others,  when  on  the  wing,  might 
easily  be  mistaken  for  bees  or  wasps;  still  others  simulate  beetles, 
while  a  few,  destitute  of  wings,  and  in  some  cases  of  legs  also,  present 
the  appearance  of  over-grown  maggots  or  grubs.  In  the  peculiarities 
of  their  development,  also,  the  entomologist  finds  a  field  of  inexhaust- 


84  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

ible  interest,  and  in  which  he  learns  much  that  can  be  turned  to  prac- 
tical account  in  his  endeavors  to  discover  the  best  methods  of  keeping 
pernicious  species  in  check.  A  general  description  of  the  insects  com- 
posing this  sub-order  is  almost  impossible.  Almost  the  only  charac- 
ters common  to  all  are  the  pointed  antennae,  the  horizontal  position  of 
the  wings  in  repose,  the  rounded  or  oval  and  inclosed  pupae,  and,  with 
some  exceptions,  the  nocturnal  habit.  The  moths  are  very  conveni- 
ently separated  into  ten  families :  Sphinx  moths  (SPHINGID^E), 
Clear-wings  (^EGERIIDJS),  Butterfly  Mimics  (ZYG^ENIDJE),  Spinners 
(BOMBYCID^E),  Owlet  moths  or  Out- worm  moths  (NoCTUiD^E),  Span- 
worm  or  Measuring- worm  moths  (GEOMETRID^E),  Snout  moths  (PYRA- 
LID^E),  Leaf-rollers  (TORTRICID^;),  Fringe-wings  or  Tineids  (TINEID^) 
and  Plume  moths  or  Feather-wings  (PTEROPHORID^;).  Of  these  fam- 
ilies the  first  six  are  sometimes  collectively  termed  the  Macro-lepidop- 
tera,  and  the  remaining  four  the  Micro-lepidoptera. 

The  Algerians  and  Zygaenids  are  diurnal ;  the  Sphinx  moths  are 
crepuscular — i.  e.,  flying  in  the  twilight — while  all  the  others  are  noctur- 
nal. 

The  Sphinx  moths  are  so  named  from  a  habit  of  many  of  the  larvae 
when  at  rest,  of  raising  the  front  part  of  the  body  and  drawing  in  the 
head,  giving  them  a  fanciful  resemblance  to  the  figures  of  the  Sphinx 
in  Egyptian  carvings  and  pictures.  They  are  also  called  "hawk  moths" 
from  the  strength  of  their  narrow  and  pointed  wings,  and  "humming- 
bird moths"  from  their  manner  of  hovering  over  flowers  while  extract- 
ing the  nectar.  These  moths  have  stout,  smooth,  spindle-shaped  bodies, 
and  the  fore  wings  are  nearly  twice  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  hinder 
pair,  and  close  roof  fashion  over  the  body  in  repose.  The  antennae  are 
somewhat  thickened  in  the  middle,  and  in  most  species  end  in  a  hook. 
The  "tongue'7  is  remarkably  long,  often  five  or  six  inches,  enabling  the 
insects,  while  on  the  wing,  to  reach  the  deepest  nectaries  of  the  flowers 
for  which  they  have  a  preference,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
Daturas,  Petunias,  and  other  long-tubed  blossoms.  The  larvae  are  cylin- 
drical caterpillars  with  a  roughened  or  granulated  surface,  generally  of 
some  shade  of  green,  and  often  with  oblique  stripes  along  each  side, 
and  almost  always  have  a  pointed  horn  or  an  eye-like  spot  on  the  top 
of  the  twelfth  joint,  With  a  few  exceptions  they  enter  the  ground  to 
transform,  and  some  species  have  an  external  tongue  case  which  is 
bent  over  like  a  jug-handle  in  front. 

The  common  tomato  or  tobacco  worm  (Sphinx  quinquemaculata, 
Haw.)  and  the  Sphinx  caterpillars  of  the  grape  vine  are  good  examples 
of  this  family.  All  the  species  are  very  voracious  and  destructive  to 
valuable  trees  and  plants. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 


85 


[Fig.  35.] 


The  Clear- winged  moths  (^GERIID^E)  are  mostly  of  small  size  and 
might  easily  be  mistaken  for  bees  or  small  wasps  when  on  the  wing. 

They  have  slender  bodies,  some- 
times ending  in  a  tuft  of  long  hairs. 
In  some  species  only  the  under- 
wings  are  transparent,  in  others 
there  is  merely  a  border  of  scales 
around  each  pair.  Among  the  larvae 

Peach-borer  (^rg^  Say. -after  EUey.  we   flnd    gome  Qf   ^  W<)r8t    ^^ 

such  as  the  Peach-tree  borer  (^Egeria  exitiosa,  Say.),  the  Easpberry 
borer  (Mrvibi,  Eiley),  and  the  Pickle  worm  (Phakellura  nitidalis,  Cram). 
The  beautiful  insects  that  I  have  termed  "Butterfly  Mimics" 
(ZYG^NID^E)  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the  genuine  butter- 
flies, except  by  the  pointed  antennae,  and  even  these  organs  sometimes 
have  a  little  silken  tuft  near  the  tip  which  helps  the  deception.  They 
delight  in  the  hottest  sunshine,  and  display  very  gay  colors  on  their 
broad  wings.  The  larvae  are  usually  transversely  striped  in  black  and 
white  with  an  orange-colored  hump  on  the  top  of  the  eleventh  segment. 
Some  very  injurious  species  are  known  as  the  "Blue  caterpillars  of  the 
vine."  When  ready  to  change  they  enter  the  ground  or  bore  into  the 
wood  of  the  grape  posts. 

Among  the  spinners  (BOMBYCID^E)  are  most  of  our  largest  and 
most  elegant  moths,  as  well  as  the  few  species  which  are  in  the  highest 
degree  valuable,  viz.,  the  silk  producers.  Some  of  these  species  ex- 
pand from  six  to  nine  inches.  The  wings  are  broad,  and  sometimes 
falcate:  i.  e.,  hollowed  out  at  the  outer  edges.  They  are  densely  cov- 
ered with  hairs  and  scales  of  rich  colors.  The  head  is  small,  and  the 
antennae  beautifully  feathered,  and  are  in  some  species  so  broad  as  to 

be  mistaken  for  an  additional 
pair  of  wings.  The  mouth  parts 
are  undeveloped,  and,  large  as 
they  are,  these  moths  are  inca- 
pable of  taking  even  a  sip  of 
nectar.  The  body  is  stout  and 
heavy,  and  the  plumy  legs  rather 
weak.  The  magnificent  Cecro- 
pia  moth  (Samia  cecropia,  Linn), 
or  the  Polyphemus  (Telea  poly- 
phemus.  Cram.) — named  for  the 
fabled  one-eyed  monster  of 
x  classic  Doetrv,  because  of  the 

Green-striped  Maple  worm  (Anisota  rubicunda,  Fabr  )  ^  •tiJ? 

after  Riley.    a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  moth-all  natural  ^^    eye.ljke    spot    that 


Fig.  36. 


86  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

ments  each  hind  wing — occasionally  enter  lighted  rooms  on  summer 
nights ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  moths  of  this  family  are  not  much  attracted 
by  light.  The  most  delicately  beautiful  of  our  native  species  is  the 
Luna  moth  (Actias  luna,  Linn.),  which  is  of  a  pale  green  color  with  an 
eye  spot  at  the  end  of  the  discal  cell  in  each  wing,  and  the  hind  wings 
extended  at  the  outer  edges  into  lobes  or  tails  sometimes  one  and  one- 
half  inches  long.  The  full  grown  larvae  of  these  species  are  immense 
caterpillars,  usually  of  a  green  color,  sparsely  hairy  and  studded  with 
wart-like  tubercles  of  brilliant  colors,  or  bear,  near  the  head,  from  one 
to  six  long,  spiny  horns  that  give  them  a  most  formidable  aspect. 

The  invaluable  and  interesting  Chinese  silk-worm  (Bombyx  mori, 
Linn.)  is  a  near  relative  of  the  species  named  above.  It  is  of  a  bluish 
or  creamy  white,  with  a  few  more  or  less  distinct  brown  markings. 
The  surface  is  smooth,  except  for  a  few  ridges  and  wrinkles  on  the 
thoracic  joints  and  a  small  pointed  horn  on  the  top  of  the  eleventh 
joint.  All  these  species  are  very  voracious,  and  feed  for  from  four  to 
six  weeks. 

The  native  spinners  are  often  quite  destructive  to  various  kinds  of 
fruit  and  shade  trees,  while  the  Chinese  silk-worm  thrives  best  on  the 
White  mulberry,  but  may  be  grown  successfully  on  the  Osage  orange, 
and,  in  the  Southern  States,  it  is  said  to  feed  on  Alfalfa.  The  silk 
gland,  lying  along  the  under  side  of  the  body,  is  very  large  in  all  the 
typical  Bombycids,  and  secretes  a  quantity  of  viscid  fluid,  which  upon 
being  drawn  out  through  the  spineret  on  the  labium,  forms  fine  threads 
of  the  exquisite  substance  known  as  silk.  Of  this  the  larvae  form  thick 
oval,  or  slender,  oblong  cocoons,  weaving  layer  over  layer  until  about 
half  the  substance  of  the  caterpillar  is  transformed  into  the  covering 
for  the  pupa.  In  the  latter  stage  our  native  species  hibernate,  but  the 
imported  species  cuts  its  way  out  in  about  two  weeks,  appearing  as 
a  rather  small,  white  moth,  whose  weak  wings  are  incapable  of  sup- 
porting it  in  flight.  The  female  lays  a  quantity  of  eggs,  and  by  means 
of  these  the  species  is  carried  over  winter. 

Among  the  most  interesting  species  of  Bombycids  are  the  singular 
forms  termed  "  slug  caterpillars." 

In  these  the  feet  are  but  slightly  developed,  and  the  insect  moves 
with  a  snail-like  glide,  over  a  leaf  or  other  surface,  by  means  of  ridges 
on  the  under  side,  leaving  a  slimy  track  behind  it.  Some  have  a 
rectangular  shape  with  several  fleshy  prominences  on  the  back,  others 
are  almost  circular,  or  of  the  shape  of  a  beech  nut.  Some  are  adorned 
on  top  with  a  double  row  of  plumy  spines. 

Nearly  all  are  brightly  colored,  or  have  the  colors  displayed  in 
peculiar  and  beautiful  patterns.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in 


OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  87 

handling  them,  as  the  hairs  and  spines  inflict  a  nettle-like  sting.  Quite 
a  number  of  species  included  among  the  spinners  do  not  secrete  silk. 
and  change  to  pupae  under  ground  in  a  frail  earthen  cell.  Among 
these  is  the  Green-striped  Maple  worm  (Dryocampa  rubicunda,  Fab.), 
(see  Fig.  36),  which  is  occasionally  very  destructive  to  the  shade  trees 
from  which  it  derives  its  name. 

The  Cut-worm  moths  or  Owlet  moths  (NoCTUiD^:)  are  a  very 
extensive  group  of  medium  sized  insects,  mostly  of  plain  clors,  but 
containing  a  few  very  gaily  decked  species.  The  body  is  rather  thick 
and  heavy,  the  fore  wings  narrow,  and  in  repose  entirely  cover  the 
hind  wings,  which  are  folded  beneath  them.  The  head  is  small,  the 
antennas  simple  (thread-like),  the  tongue  long,  and  the  eyes  in  many 
cases  hairy  or  encircled  by  hairs. 

The  thorax  is  often  crested  or  tufted,  with  long,  erect  Scales. 
The  upper  wings,  whatever  their  color  and  markings,  display  two  more 
or  less  distinct  spots,  the  one  round,  the  other  kidney-shaped  (orbicu- 
lar and  reniformj.  The  true  cut-worms  are  smooth,  dingy-colored 
caterpillars,  many  of  which  commonly  rest  in  a  coiled  position.  They 
conceal  themselves  by  day  and  crawl  out  by  night  to  their  work  of 
destruction,  cutting  off  not  only  tender  herbaceous  vegetation,  but 
ascending  trees  and  vines  to  nip  off  the  young  leaves.  When  ready 
to  transform,  these  "  worms  "  burrow  into  the  earth  or  conceal  them 
selves  under  rubbish  on  its  surface,  but  never  spin  any  regular  cocoon. 

The  well-known  Army  worm  (Leucanla  unipuncta,  Haw.),  which 
sometimes  devastates  numerous  grain  fields  in  a  single  march,  is  one 
of  the  representatives  of  this  group.  So,  also,  is  the  wide- spread  Corn 
worm  or  Boll  worm  (Heliotliis  armigera,  Hub.)  See  Fig.  34.  The  large 
moths  of  the  genus  Catocala,  easily  recognized  by  their  gaily  banded 
under-wings,  in  which  scarlet,  crimson,  orange  or  white  alternates  with 
black,  are  also  included  in  the  family 


88 


OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 


The  Span-worm  rig-  37. 

moths  (GEOMET- 
BID JE)  are  mostly 
of  pale,  delicate 
colors,  with  slen- 
der bodies,broad 
thin  wings,  which 
in  repose  are 
spread  out  at 
right  angles  from 
the  body,  and  by 
the  usuallyslight- 
ly  or  broadly 
feathered  anten- 
nae. In  this  fam- 
ily the  females 
are  sometimes 
wingless.  The 
larvae  are  called 

"Measuring  Lime-tree  Winter  moth  (Hybernia  titiaria,  Har.)  after  Riley .    On  left  above 
is  the  hroad-winged  male,  while  the  spider-like  creature  below  is  the 
WOrms"  Or    Span       female,  which  never  acquires  wings;  on  right,  caterpillars. 

worms"  from  their  looping  mode  of  crawling.  This  is  necessitated  by 
the  lack  of  two  or  three  pairs  of  the  abdominal  pro-legs,  so  that  in 
crawling  the  hinder  end  of  the  body  is  brought  up  close  to  the  head 
at  every  onward  motion.  These  worms  are  generally  long,  slender  and 
cylindrical.  Some  have  bud-like  or  scale-like  humps  on  the  body,  so 
that  when  the  latter  is  at  rest  and  held  out  from  a  branch  in  an  oblique 
direction,  it  simulates  a  twig  so  closely  as  to  escape  recognition.  In 
preparing  for  transformation,  these  larvae  either  enter  the  ground  or 
enclose  themselves  in  thin  cocoons  in  some  concealed  spot.  Among 
the  pernicious  species  we  find  the  Apple  and  Elm  tree  Canker  worms 
(Anisopteryx  vernata,  Har.,  and  A.  autumnalis,  Pack.),  and  the  Lime 
tree  Winter  moth  (Hybernia  tiliari,  Har.)  See  Fig.  37. 

The  Snout  moths  (Pyralldce)  are  much  like  many  of  the  Geometers 
in  general  appearance,  but  may  usually  be  distinguished  from  them  by 
their  smaller  size  and  the  long,  slender  palpi,  which  are  held  close  to- 
gether and  project  in  front  of  the  head  like  a  beak.  Some  of  the 
larvae  are  leaf-rollers ;  others  feed  on  meal  or  in  clover  hay,  while  others 
are  true  "grass  worms"  and  do  much  damage  to  meadows  and  pastures. 

The  true  leaf-rollers  (TortricidceJ  are  a  family  of  small  moths,  many 
of  which  are  richly  and  beautifully  colored.  They  are  characterized 
by  the  oblong  form  of  the  upper  wings,  which,  in  repose,  are  folded 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  89 

roof-like  over  the  body.  The  eyes  are  large,  the  antennae  filiform,  the 
palpi  broad,  tufted  and  somewhat  triangular.  The  Iarva3  are  usually 
rather  soft,  plainly  colored  worms  with  a  heart-shaped  head,  a  distinct 
horny  collar,  and  horny  plate  on  top  of  the  last  joint.  The  great  ma- 
jority conceal  themselves  within  leaves  variously  twisted  and  rolled, 
from  which  habit  the  group  derives  its  name.  A  few  species  feed  on 
fruit,  among  which  the  universal  apple  enemy,  the  Codling  moth  (Car- 
pocopsa  pomonella,  Linn.),  is  the  most  notorious. 

The  Fringe-wings  (TINEID^E)  include  the  smallest  insects  in  the 
Order.  They  have  slender,  lance  -  shaped  wings,  bordered  by  long 
fringes,  and  many  of  them  are  exquisitely  colored  in  various  metallic 
and  prismatic  tints.  The  antennse  are  simple,  and  usually  nearly  as 
long  as  the  body.  The  palpi  vary  in  form,  but  are,  as  a  rule,  long  and 
conspicuous,  in  many  species  curving  upward  in  front  of  the  head. 
The  Iarva3  are  often  leaf-miners  or  case-bearers.  Others  are  destruc- 
tive to  fruit  or  grain,  or  feed  upon  feathers,  furs  and  wool,  being  the 
^clothes  moths,"  against  whose  ravages  it  is  necessary  to  protect  some 
of  our  costliest  apparel. 

The  Feather-wings  or  Plume  moths  (PTEROPHORIDJE)  have  the 
wings  cleft  so  that  each  appears  composed  of  several  feathers.  They 
are  small  insects,  only  one  or  two  of  which  are  seriously  destructive, 
as  for  example  the  Grape-vine  Plume. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
Order  IV.     DIPTERA. 

[Fig.  33.] 


Tachina  fly  (Lydella  doryphora)  Riley. 

In  this  Order  are  grouped  the  insects  that  have  but  a  single  pair 
of  wings,  and  a  few  others  that  have  no  wings  at  all.     They  are  popu- 


90  OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

larly  distinguished  as  flies.  Although  many  flies,  in  the  larva  state,  are 
undoubtedly  useful  as  scavengers,  yet  the  perfect  insects  are,  most  of 
them,  so  annoying,  and  often  so  positively  injurious,  that  the  entire 
Order  is  regarded  with  much  disfavor.  Mosquitos,  gnats,  house-flies,, 
gad-flies  and  other  species  frequently  occur  in  such  immense  swarms 
in  certain  localities  as  to  render  life  almost  intolerable.  A  few  species 
are  brilliantly  colored,  or  of  striking  size  or  form,  but,  as  a  rule,  the 
members  of  this  division  are  the  most  individually  inconspicuous  of 
insects. 

The  bodies  of  most  flies  are  soft  and  fragile.  The  head  is  usually 
large,  round  or  hemispherical,  often  quite  concave  behind,  and  is  at- 
tached to  the  thorax  by  a  peg-like  neck,  on  which  it  can  be  twirled 
almost  completely  around  without  being  separated  from  the  body.  The 
eyes  are,  except  in  a  few  very  lowly  organized  species,  very  large,  cov- 
ering the  greater  part  of  the  head,  and  their  faceted  structure  can  be 
seen  even  without  the  aid  of  a  lens.  The  mouth-parts  are  very  differ- 
ently developed  in  the  different  families,  l»ut  are  all  peculiarly  fitted  for 
sipping  fluids.  In  the  house-fly  the  jaws  and  true  maxillae  are  wanting, 
but  the  secondary  maxillse  and  the  lower  lip  form  a  proboscis  which 
ends  in  a  pair  of  broad  flaps,  whose  ridged  surface  enables  the  insect 
to  lap  up  sweet  fluids  or  the  perspiration  from  the  hand,  or  the  juicea 
of  meat  or  other  liquids  to  which  it  is  attracted.  When  not  in  use,  the 
proboscis  being  jointed,  is  folded  up  and  fits  into  a  groove  in  the  face. 
The  so-called  "stinging  flies"  have  the  jaws  modified  into  very  sharp 
lancets,  which  are  so  strong  that  they  are  capable  of  piercing  even  the 
thick  skin  of  a  horse  and  drawing  the  blood.  The  antennas  are  either 
short  and  stout,  having  but  three  joints  and  a  bristle,  or  are  many- 
jointed,  long  and  feathered,  as  in  the  mosquito.  The  thorax  is  large 
and  round,  the  first  and  third  segments — pro-thorax  and  meta-thorax— 
being  very  small  and  closely  consolidated  above  with  the  meso-thorax,. 
which  is  large  and  muscular.  The  wings  are  composed  of  thin,  trans- 
parent or  smoky  membrane  supported  by  strong  veins.  They  can  be 
vibrated  with  exceeding  swiftness,  and  the  insects  are  capable  of  longer 
and  more  continuous  flights  than  any  of  the  four- winged  species.  At 
the  base  of  each  wing  is  a  little  roundish  scale  called  the  icinglet  or 
aluletj  the  use  of  which  has  not  yet  been  discovered.  The  hind  wings 
are  represented  by  two  thread-like  organs  ending  in  little  knobs,  which 
are  the  halter  es,  poisers  or  balancers,  whose  function  is  likewise  un- 
known. The  legs  are  generally  rather  weak  and  slender,  and  in  some 
species  are  very  long.  The  feet  are  five-jointed,  and  besides  the  clawsr 
are  provided  with  a  bilobed  cushion  clothed  with  microscopic  hairs- 


OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  91 

from  which  exudes  a  sticky  fluid,  by  means  of  which  the  insect  is  en- 
abled to  walk  up  and  down  the  panes  of  a  window  or  along  the  ceiling 
of  a  room.  The  old,  ingenious  theory  of  "the  exhaustion  of  air  under 
its  feet,"  by  which  the  crawling  of  a  fly  on  such  surfaces  used  to  be 
explained,  is  now  known  to  be  erroneous.  In  the  abdomen  of  the 
stouter-bodied  flies  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  more  than  four  seg- 
ments, the  terminal  ones  being  abruptly  narrowed  and  drawn  within 
the  body  to  form  the  ovipositor. 

Such  flies  as  the  house-fly  and  the  gad-fly  are  on  the  wing  and 
troublesome  only  during  the  day.  Others,  like  the  mosquito,  are  most 
active  at  night,  while  some  are  equally  tormenting  during  the  entire 
twenty- four  hours. 

The  transformations  of  dipterous  insects  are  complete.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  singly  or  in  masses  upon  the  solids  or  fluids  upon  which 
the  larvae  feed.  Those  of  many  species  are  smooth  and  white  and  of 
a  linear  oblong  shape. 

The  larvae  of  terrestrial  flies  are  called  maggots.  They  are  soft, 
thin-skinned,  cylindrical,  and  taper  most  toward  the  head,  or  rather 
the  mouth,  for  but  few  of  them  have  any  distinct  head.  They  have  no 
legs  or  other  organs  of  locomotion,  and  wriggle  from  place  to  place  by 
a  peculiar  twisting  of  the  body,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "  cheese  skip- 
pers," they  coil  themselves  up  and  seize  the  tail  between  the  jaws,  and 
then  by  suddenly  letting  go,  jerk  themselves  to  great  distances  by  the 
rebound. 

Aquatic  larvae  are  furnished  with  fin-like  swimming  organs,  and 
some  species  breathe  through  long  tubes  situated  on  the  posterior  end 
of  the  body,  which  can  be  elevated  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Many  dipterous  larvre  are  parasitic  ;  others  feed  upon  decaying  animal 
or  vegetable  matter ;  those  which  are  aquatic  subsist  on  organic  im- 
purities of  water,  and  a  considerable  proportion  feed  on  the  tissues  of 
growing  plants.  Except  in  the  case  of  some  aquatic  species,  the  pupae 
are  inactive.  They  are  of  two  forms  :  coarctate,  that  is,  inclosed  in  the 
dry  and  hardened  larva  skin,  or  obtected,  with  the  larva  skin  thrown 
off,  and  the  rudimentary  members  of  the  mature  insect  separately  en- 
cased, as  in  the  pupae  of  Hymenoptera  and  Coleoptera.  The  pupa 
state  is  generally  of  short  duration.  The  Diptera  may  be  considered 
under  two  sub-orders  : 

I.  O  R,  T  H  o  R  A  P  H  A,  in  which  the  obtected  pupa  escapes  from 
the  larval  skin  through  a  cross  slit  or  T-shaped  opening  between  the 
seventh  and  eighth  joints;  and 

II.  0  y  c  L  o  R  A  P  H  A,   including    mostly    coarctate  pupae,  from 
which  the  perfect  fly  escapes  through  a  circular  hole  on  top  of  the 
puparium. 


92  OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

Each  of  these  divisions  contains  many  families  which  differ  in 
many  points  of  structure  and  habit.  Tt  will  be  possible  here  to  refer 
only  to  those  which  include  the  species  most  commonly  met  with,  and 
of  most  importance  from  an  economic  standpoint.  In  the  first  we  find 
the  Gall-gnats  and  grain-flies  (OECIDOMYIDJB).  These  are  all  small 
species,  which  are  injurious  to  vegetation.  They  have  slender  bodies 
and  long  antennae,  which  are  often  plumy.  The  wings  have  three  or 
four  veins,  extending  from  base  to  outer  margin,  and  are  usually 
fringed  around  the  edge.  The  halteres  are  long  and  round-knobbed, 
and  the  legs  long  and  slender.  The  gall-making  species  place  their 
eggs  upon  leaves  or  tender  stems,  into  the  tissues  of  which  the  larvae 
work  their  way,  causing  by  irritation,  peculiar  fleshy  or  woody  swell- 
ings. On  this  abnormal  vegetable  tissue  the  larvae  feed.  The  latter  are 
minute  maggots,  often  of  a  pale  red  color,  with  a  peculiar,  clove- 
shaped  dark  mark  on  the  under  side  near  the  head,  which  can  be 
clearly  distinguished  only  by  the  aid  of  a  lens. 

The  Hessian  fly  (Cecidomyia  destructor,  Say.)  and  the  Wheat-midge 
(Diplosis  tritici,  Kirby)  are  the  most  notoriously  destructive  of  these 
gnats.  The  larvae  of  the  former  are  flesh-colored  maggots,  which  are 
found  beneath  the  sheaths  of  the  lower  joints  of  the  wheat  stalk  in  au- 
tumn and  early  spring,  and  which  dwarf  and  sometimes  entirely  kill  the 
plant  by  extracting  the  sap  from  the  tender  stems.  In  the  change  to 
pupa,  the  larval  skin  hardens  and  turns  brown,  forming  a  "flax-seed"- 
like  puparium,  within  which  the  transformations  take  place. 

The  Wheat-midge  is  a  tiny,  orange-colored  fly  which  places  its  eggs 
on  the  young  heads  of  wheat,  from  which  the  red  maggots  extract  the  . 
juices  and  cause  the  kernels  to  shrivel. 

The  Buffalo-gnats  (SIMULID^:)  are  short,  thick  species  with  a  very 
rounded  thorax,  short  antennae  and  strong  mouth  parts,  capable  of 
drawing  blood  from  cattle  and  mules  as  well  as  from  man.  At  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  they  are  an  almost  insupportable  pest  on  the  shores 
of  the  northern  lakes  and  in  the  south,  along  the  principal  water- 
courses. The  larvae  breed  in  water  and  have  a  singular  feathery  gill  at 
the  hinder  end. 

Mosquitos  (OuLiciD^E)  are  characterized  chiefly  by  the  complex 
mouth  parts,  which  are  projected  straight  forward  in  front  of  the  head. 
The  beak  or  sting  of  the  female  mosquito— for  the  males  are  inoffen- 
sive creatures,  that  neither  sing  nor  sting — when  closely  examined,  is 
seen  to  consist  of  a  bundle  of  fine  bristles,  seven  in  number,  which  to- 
gether form  a  sharp-pointed  tube  by  which  the  skin  of  man  and  the 
larger  animals  is  pierced,  and  through  which  a  minute  portion  of  poison 
from  a  gland  in  the  pro-thorax  is  forced  into  the  wound,  before  or  after 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  93 

the  blood  has  been  drawn.  The  mouth  parts  of  the  male  mosquito  are 
not  so  long,  and  are  adapted  to  sipping  the  nectar  of  flowers  instead  of 
the  sanguinary  nourishment  preferred  by  his  partner.  The  eyes  are 
very  large  and  somewhat  oblong.  The  antennae  are  plumy  in  both 
sexes,  but  those  of  the  male  are  much  more  ornamental  than  those  of 
the  female.  The  thorax  is  considerably  humped  and  the  bind  body 
long  and  slender.  The  legs  are  also  very  long  and  thin.  The  wings 
are  fringed  on  the  edge  and  the  principal  veins  are  outlined  by  fine 
scales.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  boat-shaped  mass  on  the  surface  of  still 
water,  and  the  larvae  are  the  well-known  "wrigglers"  so  often  seen  in 
standing  water.  They  swim  by  the  aid  of  unsymmetrically  arranged 
tufts  of  bristles,  and  breathe  through  a  tube  at  the  hinder  end  of  the 
body,  which  they  frequently  project  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  pupae  do  not  take  any  nourishment,  but  are  active,  club-headed 
affairs  which  swim  by  means  of  the  two  paddles  in  which  the  abdomen 
terminates.  There  are  a  great  many  species  of  these  venomous  gnats, 
some  of  which  are  strictly  nocturnal  while  others  are  equally  active  day 
and  night.  Culex  ciliatus,  Fab.  is  perhaps  the  most  generally  dis- 
tributed species. 

The  Crane-flies  (TIPULID.E)  resemble  mosquitoes  in  general  ap- 
pearance, but  many  species  are  from  five  to  ten  times  the  size  of  the 
latter.  They  have  no  sting  and  are  not  injurious  in  any  way.  The 
larvae  breed  in  soil  that  is  rich  in  decaying  organic  matter,  and  there- 
fore often  emerge  from  flower-pots  and  hot-beds.  They  also  occur  in 
mould  and  other  fungi,  and  in  water. 

Gad-flies  or  Breeze-flies  (TABANID^:). — In  this  and  the  two  follow- 
ing families  of  the  Orthorapha,  the  antennae  are  short  and  three-jointed. 
The  Gad-flies  or  Horse-flies  are  shaped  much  like  the  house-fly,  but  are 
very  much  larger.  The  mouth  parts  are  very  strong  and  awl-shaped,  and 
the  bite  is  very  painful.  There  are  several  species,  of  which  the 
"  Green-head  fly"  (Tabanm  lineola,  Fabr.)  and  the  large  black  Horse- 
fly (T.  atratus  Fabr.)  are  exceedingly  annoying  to  horses  during  the 
summer  months,  their  sharp  stabs  and  their  menacing  buzz  driving  the 
animals  into  a  frenzy,  and  not  infrequently  causing  them  to  run  away. 

The  Mottled  Breeze-fly,  a  somewhat  smaller  species,  mottled  in 
a  dirty  white  and  brown,  is  more  especially  injurious  to  horn  cattle. 
The  larvae  are  aquatic  or  semi-aquatic,  and  those  that  have  been 
described  are  glossy,  greenish  or  yellowish  "woims,"  with  a  row  of 
rounded  tubercles  on  each  side,  and  taper  to  a  very  small  head.  The 
pupae  are  ridged  or  roughened  on  the  abdominal  joints,  and  formed  in 
the  ground. 


94  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  Kobber-flies  (  ASILID  JE)  have  long,  slender  bodies  and  wings,  and 
spiny,  long,  stout  legs.  The  beak  is  short  but  strong,  and  the  under 
lip  well  developed.  The  eyes  are  almost  globular,  and  the  antennae 
short,  often  tipped  with  a  bristle.  The  body  is  usually  hairy,  varying 
in  length  from  one  to  two  inches,  and  tapers  toward  the  tip.  The  colors 
are  mostly  black  and  white,  though  some  species  have  the  thorax 
clothed  with  yellow  hairs.  In  their  perfect  state,  the  Bobber-flies  are 
fierce  and  greedy  cannibals,  especially  destructive  to  the  honey-bee,  of 
which  one  species  has  been  known  to  kill  and  suck  the  vital  juices  of 
more  than  one  hundred  and  forty  in  a  day,  according  to  Dr.  Packard. 
They  sometimes  make  amends,  however,  by  preying  on  the  Cabbage 
butterfly,  though  I  fear  this  has  not  yet  become  a  very  general  habit. 
The  larvae  live  in  the  ground,  and  those  that  have  been  studied  have 
fed  upon  roots. 

The  Bee-flies  (BOMBYLLD^;)  resemble  small  Humble  bees  in  their 
thick,  hairy  bodies.  They  are  very  swift  on  the  wing,  and  are  often 
found  on  flowers,  from  which  they  extract  nectar  with  the  long  pro- 
boscis. The  larvae  are  parasitic  on  bees  and  on  the  eggs  of  locusts 
(grasshoppers). 

In  the  Sub-Order  CYCLORAPHA  we  find  a  large  number  of 
families  of  flies  whose  larvae  are  parasites  or  scavengers  and  a  few 
that  feed  on  vegetation,  among  which  are  some  common  gall-makers 
also  some  that  live  in  water.  The  transformations  take  place  either 
underground  or  on  the  surfaces  upon  which  the  larvae  fed — the  larval 
skin  thickening  and  hardening  into  an  oblong  case,  within  which  the 
soft,  white  pupa  is  formed.  The  flies  always  come  out  through  a  round 
hole  on  the  top.  They  usually  have  rather  short,  thick  bodies,  broad 
heads  and  short  antennae,  ending  in  a  bristle.  The  following  families 
contain  the  species  that  are  most  directly  beneficial  or  injurious  to  man : 
Syrphus  flies  (SYRPHID^E).  See  Plate  of  Orders.)  This  is  a  group  of 
handsome  flies,  ranging  in  size  from  small  to  medium  (having  a  body 
length  of  from  one-fifth  to  one-half  inch).  The  colors  are  often  arranged 
in  bright  bands,  giving  the  insects  quite  a  wasp-like  appearance.  The 
front  of  the  face  has  no  groove  for  the  reception  of  the  antennae,  which 
have  the  last  joint  much  thickened  just  back  of  the  bristle.  The 
larvae  are  legless  and  headless,  leech-like  creatures,  which  do  us  great 
service  in  destroying  all  kinds  of  plant-lice  ( Aphididcej,  and  may  almost 
always  be  found  in  the  colonies  of  the  latter,  which  they  very  rapidly 
exterminate.  The  great  majority  of  the  beneficial  species  are  found  in 
the  genus  Syrphus.  Their  transformations  are  very  easily  observed,  as 
they  are  hardy  and  develop  rapidly. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  95 

The  singular  "  rat-tailed "  larvre,  often  found  in  stagnant  pools  or 
other  foul  water,  produce  hairy  flies  of  the  genus  Eristalis. 

Bot-flies  (GSsTRiD^;)  are  stout,  hairy  insects,  much  resembling  small 
Humble  bees.  The  mouth  parts  are  but  slightly  developed,  and  the 
small  antenna,  hidden  in  little  cavities  in  the  very  narrow  face,  seem,  at 
first  glance,  to  be  wanting.  They  are  chiefly  interesting  from  the  habits 
of  the  larvae,  which  live  in  the  stomachs  of  horses,  in  the  heads  of 
sheep,  and  on  the  backs  and  other  parts  of  the  bodies  of  cattle  and 
other  animals,  causing  great  suffering  and  sometimes  even  death  to  the 
poor  creatures  infested.  The  Bot-flies  of  the  horse  (Gastrophilus  equi, 
Fabr.)  lay  their  eggs  on  the  horse's  front  legs  or  on  the  flanks  or  hips, 
glueing  them  most  firmly  to  the  hairs.  The  Iarva3,  which  are  hatched 
very  shortly,  produce  an  irritation  which  induces  the  horse  to  bite  at 
those  parts,  and  by  this  means  they  enter  the  mouth  and  make  their 
way  into  the  stomach.  There  they  attach  themselves,  by  means  of 
mouth  hooks,  to  the  lining  membrane,  feeding  on  the  mucus  and  diges- 
tive fluids,  occasionally  penetrating  to  the  muscular  tissue,  causing 
much  irritation  and  pain,  and,  when  very  numerous,  producing  danger- 
ous fever  and  weakness.  When  full  grown,  the  "bots"  pass  out  with 
the  excrement  and  burrow  into  the  earth,  from  which  the  flies  issue  in 
six  or  seven  weeks.  The  Sheep  bot-fly  (CEstrus  ovis,  Linn.)  deposits  its 
larvre,  already  hatched,  in  the  nostrils  of  the  sheep,  which  immediately 
work  their  way  into  the  nasal  cavities  and  frontal  sinus  of  the  head  and 
attach  themselves  to  the  walls,  producing  the  disease  known  as  "  grub 
in  the  head,'7  from  which  sheep  so  commonly  suffer  and  not  infrequently 
die.  When  these  maggots  are  full  grown  they  drop  from  the  nostrils 
to  the  ground,  beneath  the  surface  of  which  they  transform. 

The  Ox  bot-fly  (Hipoderma  bovis,  De  Geer)  is  a  similar,  but  larger 
species,  which  causes  tumors  on  the  backs  of  cattle,  usually  laying  its 
eggs  on  parts  which  the  creature  cannot  conveniently  reach  with  its 
tongue.  The  larvae,  termed  "  warbles,"  burrow  beneath  the  skin  and 
cause  very  disfiguring  and  painful  swellings. 

The  Tachina  flies  (TACHINID^E)  are  stout,  dark-colored,  bristly 
flies,  which  deserve  to  be  held  in  the  highest  estimation  on  account  of 
the  parasitic  habits  of  all  the  larvae,  which  feed  in  the  bodies  of  nu- 
merous destructive  caterpillars  and  grubs,  and  greatly  reduce  thd 
numbers  of  these  pests.  The  small,  oval,  ivory-white  eggs  are  laid, 
sometimes  singly,  sometimes  two  or  three  in  a  cluster,  on  the  back  of 
the  caterpillar  or  other  insect,  often  just  behind  the  head,  in  order  to 
be  safe  from  the  jaws  of  the  victim.  These  eggs  adhere  so  firmly  that 


E— 7 


96  OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

it  is  impossible  to  remove  them  entire.  The  larvae,  immediately  upon 
hatching,  penetrate  the  skin  of  the  insect  and  feed  upon  the  non- vital 
parts,  so  that,  as  a  rule,  the  infested  specimen  is  able  to  enter  the 
ground  or  to  spin  its  cocoon  before  it  is  killed  by  the  parasite.  The 
transformations  of  the  latter  then  take  place,  and  the  flies  appear  very 
shortly,  or,  in  other  cases,  hibernate  with  the  remains  of  their  host  and 
emerge  in  the  spring,  at  the  season  when  fresh  victims  are  most  numer- 
ous. Army  worms  and  all  cut-worms,  various  spinners  and  sphinxes, 
grasshoppers,  the  larvae  of  the  Colorado  potato-beetles  and  many  other 
pests  are  destroyed  by  them.  See  Fig.  38. 

House-flies,  blow-flies,  etc.  (Muscidce).  No  family  of  insects  are 
more  familiar  to  us  than  the  principal  members  of  this  group.  At 
almost  any  season  of  the  year  the  student  can  obtain  a  fresh  specimen 
for  examination,  since  many  individuals  of  the  common  house-fly,  and 
also  of  the  meat-fly,  contrive  to  secure  winter  quarters  in  our  warm 
sitting-rooms  and  pantries.  In  these  insects  the  greater  portion  of  the 
head  is  occupied  by  the  eyes,  which  are,  in  some  species,  quite  brightly 
colored.  The  short  antennae  are  plumy  or  sparingly  bristled;  the 
labrum  is  elongated  into  a  jointed  proboscis,  terminating  in  a  pair  of 
broad,  sucker-like  flaps,  which  have  their  ridged  inner  surfaces  closely 
pressed  together  when  not  in  use,  but  are  spread  out  when  lapping  up 
liquids,  as  may  be  easily  observed  in  the  House-fly.  Other  species  have 
the  proboscis  terminate  in  minute  lancets.  The  body  is  sparingly 
clothed  with  stiff  hairs,  and  is  either  of  a  dull  black  and  white  or  gray 
,  color,  or,  as  in  the  "  Blue-bottles  "  or  green  meat-flies,  it  is  of  a  dark 
metallic  blue  or  green.  The  wings  are  transparent,  the  legs  rather 
stouter  than  in  other  flies  and  more  or  less  hairy.  The  eggs  are  soft, 
pearl-white  and  slender-oblong,  deposited  singly  or  in  little  bundles  or 
masses.  The  larvae  are  soft,  white  or  whitish  maggots,  some  of  them 
elongate- conical,  thick  and  blunt  at  the  hinder  end  and  tapering  to  a 
point  in  front ;  others  are  slender  and  cylindrical ;  most  of  them  have 
a  smooth  or  somewhat  ridged  surface,  but  a  few  are  hairy.  Those  of 
the  House-fly  (Musca  domestic^  Linn,)  breed  mainly  in  horse  manure. 
Another  species  which  also  breeds  in  stables  and  barn-yards  is  the 
Lancet-fly  (Stomoxys  calcitraus,  Linn.)  It  is  scarcely  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  common  House-fly,  except  that  when  crawling  or  at 
rest  the  wings  are  held  more  apart  and  the  proboscis  is  more  slender 
and  terminates  in  a  point  instead  of  a  pair  of  fleshy  lips.  It  bites 
severely  and  is  very  troublesome  to  horses  and  cattle,  nor  does  it  hesi- 
tate, upon  occasion,  to  draw  human  blood.  It  is  most  abundant  late 
in  summer  and  in  early  autumn. 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY.  97 

Still  another  plague  of  the  herds  has  recently  appeared  in  this 
country  as  an  immigrant  from  Europe.  This  is  the  Horn-fly  (Hcemato- 
bia  serrata,  Rob. — Des).  From  the  accounts  of  Dr.  Eiley  of  Washing- 
ton, and  other  eastern  entomologists,  we  learn  that  it  is  a  dark  species, 
much  smaller  than  the  house-fly,  but  otherwise  much  like  it,  which  has 
the  habit  of  settling  in  swarms  on  the  necks,  shoulders,  and  around 
the  bases  of  the  horns  of  cattle.  It  punctures  the  skin  with  its  horny 
beak  and  draws  the  blood,  so  worrying  the  poor  animals  that  they  be- 
come reduced  in  flesh,  and  cows  fail  to  give  the  usual  quantity  of  milk. 
The  flies  lay  their  eggs  on  the  fresh  droppings  of  the  cattle,  in  which 
the  larvae  breed. 

The  large  hairy  "  Blue-bottle  "  fly  (Musca  ccesar,  Linn.J,  and  the 
smaller  Green  " Meat-fly"  (Galiphora  erythro  cephala,  Meig.),  are  well, 
known  species  which  give  much  trouble  to  meat  dealers  and  house- 
keepers. 

The  Screw-worm  fly  (Lucilia  macellaria,  Fabr.)   has  occasionally 
proved  fatal  to  human  life  by  laying  its  eggs  in  wounds  or  in  the  nostrils 
\  of  persons  who  were  sleeping  in  the  open  air.     It  occurs  in  the  South- 
western States,  where  it  is  a  great  plague  on  cattle. 

The  family  TRYPETID^E  includes  a  number  of  very  pretty  flies, 
which  have  the  wings  variegated  with  smoky-brown  spots  and  bands. 
Many  of  these  flies  are  gall-makers  on  various  weeds,  and  are  not 
especially  injurious.  One,  however  (Trypeta  pomonella,  Walsh.),  is  the 
parent  of  the  Apple  maggot,  which  has,  in  some  of  the  Eastern  States, 
proved  very  destructive  to  apples,  rivaling,  and  in  some  instances  ex- 
ceeding, the  damage  done  by  the  Codling  moth. 

The  Onion  fly  (Tritoxa  flexa,  Wied.)  is  sometimes  quite  injurious  to 
growing  onions.  It  has  dark,  oblong  wings,  crossed  by  three  curving 
white  bands.  It  is  now  placed  in  the  family  ORTALID^E. 

In  the  PIOPHILIDJE  we  find  the  Cheese  fly  (Piophila  casei,  Linn). 
The  family  DROSPHILID^  includes  several  small  species  that  attack 
ripe  and  preserved  fruits.  In  OSCINID^E  are  a  few  species  injurious  to 
growing  grain.  Meromyza  amencana,  Fitch.,  burrows  in  the  tender 
stalks. 

A  third  Sub-Order  (PuPiPARA)  has  been  grouped  with  the 
more  lowly  organized  Diptera,  although  the  usually  minute  insects 
composing  it  are  not  much  like  the  typical  flies.  These  are  the  Sheep- 
tick  ( Melopliagus  ovinus,  Linn.)  and  the  Horse  tick  (Hippobosca  equina 
Linn.),  which  is  the  only  winged  species.  Others,  very  minute,  are  the 
Bat-ticks  and  Bee-lice. 

The  Fleas  also  have  many  affinities  with  flies,  and  may  here  be  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  them ;  yet  most  authors  now  class  them  in  a 


98 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 


small  separate  Order — S  IPHONAPTERA.  They  are  bard,  thick, 
wingless  creatures,  having  the  body  compressed  at  the  sides  and 
sparsely  hairy.  In  place  of  the  usual  compound  eyes  they  have  two 
ocelli.  The  pointed  head  is  armed  with  backward  pointing  teeth.  The 
legs  are  stout,  with  the  thighs  greatly  thickened,  giving  them  their 
wonderful  leaping  power.  The  eggs  are  scattered  about  in  untidy 
human  dwellings,  dog  kennels  and  the  like,  and  the  slender  maggot- 
like  larvae  feed  in  the  dust  and  organic  particles  that  accumulate  in  the 
cracks  of  floors,  under  rugs  and  similar  hiding  places.  When  ready  to 
transform  the  larvae  enclose  themselves  in  silken  cocoons.  The  human 
flea  is  Pulex  irritans,  Linn.,  while  P.  canis,  Dug.,  affects  the  dog  and 
cat.  The  tropical  " jigger,'7  "chigoe"  or  "-chique"  ( Sarcopsylla  pene- 
trans}  is  the  pest  of  hot,  sandy  regions,  but  must  not  be  confounded 
with  a  small  tick — a  species  of  mite — that  occurs  further  north,  and 
also  burrows  into  the  skin  and  causes  sores,  and  which  is  likewise  often 
called  a  "jigger." 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


Order  V.     HEMIPTERA.. 

[Fig.  40.] 


Harlequin  Cabbage-bug  (Murgantia  histrionica,  Hahn.— after  Riley.     a,  b,  larva  and 
pupa  (nymphse;;  c,  eggs  natural  size;  d,  e,  same  magnified;  g,  h,  perfect  bug. 

This  Order  derives  its  name  from  a  compound  Greek  word  signi- 
fying half-wing,  and  refers  to  the  half  membranous,  half-leathery  (cori- 
aceous) structure  of  the  wings  of  many  of  the  representatives.  It  con- 
tains the  only  insects  that  may,  with  perfect  accuracy,  be  called  bugs. 
The  term  "bug,"  so  generally  but  incorrectly  applied  to  many  kinds  of 
insects,  is  supposed  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  word  "bug-bear,"  as 
something  frightful  or  dangerous,  and  it  is  most  fitting  that,  correctly 
used,  it  should  refer  to  the  division  which  includes  such  insects  as  the 
bed-bug,  louse  and  similar  objects  of  dread  and  disgust. 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY.  99 

The  insects  of  this  Order  display  great  differences  of  form  and 
habit,  but  as  all  subsist  solely  on  liquid  nourishment,  extracted  from 
living  plants  or  animals,  all  the  principal  representatives  agree  per- 
fectly in  the  structure  of  the  mouth.  This  consists  of  a  strong,  three 
or  four-jointed  beak,  which  is  a  modification  of  the  under  lip  into  a 
channeled  brace  in  which  rest  two  pairs  of  very  fine  bristles,  corres- 
ponding to  the  two  pairs  of  jaws,  the  combination  being  an  admirable 
arrangement  for  piercing  and  sucking.  (In  some  of  the  more  lowly 
organized  members  of  this  Order,  there  is  no  horny -jointed  beak,  but 
the  front  of  the  head  is  merely  elongated,  forming  a  sucker-like  cup 
provided  with  minute  biting  organs.)  The  upper  lip  (labruin)  is  con- 
solidated with  the  lower  part  of  the  face  to  form  a  strong  support  to 
the  developed  mouth  parts.  The  eyes  are  large  and  round,  in  some 
cases  brightly  colored,  and  two  ocelli  may  be  distinguished  in  many 
species.  The  antennae  are  usually  thread-like  or  bristle-like,  in  some 
cases  quite  long,  with  the  terminal  joints  slightly  enlarged. 

In  their  general  form  the  Hemiptera  are  among  the  most  variable 
of  insects.  Some  have  the  body  almost  hemispherical,  others  are  thick 
and  square  or  oblong,  while  others  still  are  ^ery  long  and  slender. 
There  is  no  general  plan  on  which  the  joints  of  the  thorax  are  devel- 
oped, some  having  the  pro-thorax  crowded  down  out  of  sight  from  the 
upper  side,  while  in  others  it  is  very  large  and  conspicuous.  The  meso- 
thorax  is  usually  the  least  variable  division,  except  as  to  the  scutellum, 
which  is  sometimes  so  large  as  to  extend  backward  almost  to  the  tip 
of  the  abdomen.  The  six  legs  are  always  present  and  the  feet  are  three- 
jointed;  some  terminate  in  a  very  distinct  claw  or  pair  of  claws  with 
cushions  (pulvilli]  between  them,  while  in  others  these  appendages  can- 
not be  distinguished.  The  upper  wings,  sometimes  termed  hemelytra, 
in  the  typical  bugs  lie  flat  upon  the  back,  the  transparent  or  trans- 
lucent tips  overlapping,  appearing  as  though  crossed  in  the  middle. 
In  other  forms  they  are  altogether  membranous  or  coriaceous,  and  fold 
roof  like  over  the  body. 

In  this  and  the  remaining  Orders  the  transformations  are  usually 
incomplete,  the  pupa  being  as  active  and  as  voracious  as  the  larva  or 
the  perfect  insect.  These  Orders  are  termed  inferior,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  less  distinct  metamorphosis,  but  also  because  of  the 
many  lowly  organized  forms  which  they  include. 

Hernipterists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  primary  subdivisions  of  the 
Order,  some  finding  it  more  convenient  to  consider  the  various  forms 
under  three  Sub-Orders,  while  others  find  it  necessary  to  define  five. 


100  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

As  two  of  these  include  but  few  species  of  general  interest,  we  shall 
here  consider  but  three : 

I.    True  Bugs  (Sub-Order HETEROPTERA). 
II.     Harvest-flies,  Leaf-hoppers,  etc.  (Sub-Order  H  o  M  o  PT  E  RA). 
III.    Lice  (Sub-Order  PARA  SITA). 


OHAPTEE  XXY. 
Order  HEMtPTEKA.    Sub-Order  HETEROPTERA. 

PRINCIPAL  FAMILIES   OF  TRUE   BUGS. 

[Fig.  41.] 


Rapacious  Soldier-bug  (Reduvius  raptatorius,  Say .)—  af;er  Riley. 

The  insects  in  this  Sub- Order  always  have  the  head  horizontal — 
namely,  on  a  plane  with  the  body,  with  the  beak  arising  from  the  front. 
The  form  of  the  head  is  somewhat  flattened  and  triangular,  attached  to 
the  thorax  by  a  broad  base  or  by  a  very  short  neck.  The  thorax  from 
above  does  not  present  any  striking  peculiarities,  except  in  the  varying 
size  of  the  scutellum;  on  the  under  side,  however,  of  a  large  majority 
of  the  species  are  two  small  openings,  connected  with  an  internal  scent 
gland  that  emit  a  vile  and  persistent  odor — one  of  the  chief  character- 
istics of  these  insects,  familiar  to  the  farmer  in  the  smell  of  the  chinch- 
bug  and  squashbug,  and  to  the  housekeeper  in  that  of  the  bedbug. 
The  wing -covers  show  considerable  variety  in  coloring  and  in  the 
relative  size  of  the  opaque  and  transparent  portions.  The  hind  wings 
are  veined  somewhat  like  those  of  beetles,  and  afford  no  characters 
used  in  classification.  The  eggs  of  many  bugs  are  conspicuous  for 
their  beauty,  making  amends,  in  some  measure,  for  the  deficiencies 
of  most  of  the  perfect  insects  in  this  respect.  Some  of  them  can  only 
be  compared  to  strings  or  clusters  of  tiny  beads  of  the  purest  gold  ; 
others  are  bronzed  or  reflect  prismatic  colors;  others,  again,  are  re- 
markable for  their  graceful  shapes  or  for  their  elaborate  ornamentation 
in  what  appears  like  filigree  work.  Instead  of  larvae,  the  immature 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  101 

bugs  are  termed  nymplice,  and  after  the  third  molt  the  rudiments  of  the 
wings  begin  to  show,  there  being  two  stages  corresponding  to  the  pupse 
of  the  higher  Orders.  These  nymphas  are  often  quite  differently  col- 
ored from  the  mature  insects. 

A  convenient  division  of  the  Heteroptera  is  into  three  sections : 
Terrestrial  bugs,  Amphibious  bugs  and  Aquatic  bugs. 

The  Terrestrial  bugs  may  be  again  divided  into  Plant-eaters  and 
Cannibals. 

Plant-eating  bugs  have  a  more  slender  beak  than  those  that  prey 
on  other  insects,  or  draw  the  blood  of  larger  animals,  but  are  otherwise 
not  very  different  from  them.  The  most  important  Families  are  :  COR- 
EID^E,  LYG^ID^E,  CAPSIDJE  and  CORIM^LIDJE.  Inclusive  popular 
names  are  difficult  to  suggest  for  these  groups. 

The  first  of  these  families  is  best  represented  by  the  well-known 
Squash-bug  (Anasa  tristis,  DeGeer).  (See  bug  on  plate.)  This  is  a  me- 
dium-sized, oblong,  dingy-brown  insecf,  paler  beneath,  with  the  head 
marked  on  top  with  two  dull  black  stripes.  The  antenna  are  about 
half  the  length  of  the  body  and  rather  stout;  the  feet  are  three-jointed. 
The  young  are  dull  green  or  yellowish,  much  broader  in  proportion 
than  the  perfect  insect.  This  is  one  of  the  most  universal  and  serious 
pests  of  melon,  cucumber  and  squash  vines.  Some  very  large  and 
striking  species  belonging  in  this  family  occur  in  the  Southern  states. 

The  LYG^EID^E  is  a  large  group  of  rather  small  bugs  which  are 
gaily  or  contrastingly  colored,  among  which  we  find  the  pernicious 
Chinch-bug  (Blissus  leucopterus,  Say).  Few  farmers,  especially  in  the 
Western  States,  have  escaped  a  costly  acquaintance  with  this  insect, 
which  is  one  of  the  chief  enemies  of  cereal  crops,  particularly  of  wheat 
and  Indian  corn.  The  perfect  bug  is  of  oblong  form,  about  one- eighth 
inch  in  length  and  of  clear  black  and  white  color.  The  yellow  eggs  are 
laid  in  the  spring  upon  the  roots  or  base  of  the  stalk  of  wheat  or  other 
grain,  and  from  these  hatch  myriads  of  pale-red  young,  which  by  their 
punctures  soon  dwarf  and  deaden  the  plant.  Although  the  perfect  in- 
sects have  ample  wings,  they  seldom  rise  into  the  air,  and  mostly  per- 
form their  emigrations  from  field  to  field  on  foot.  The  false  Chinch-bug 
(Nysius  destructor,  Riley)  is  rather  smaller  than  its  namesake,  and  less 
strikingly  marked,  being  of  a  shaded  grayish  brown  color.  It  is  very 
injurious  in  certain  sections  of  the  country  to  grape-vines,  potatoes, 
radishes  and  a  number  of  other  plants. 

As  the  most  familiar  example  of  the  family  CAPSID.E,  the  Tarnished 
Plant  bug  (Lygus  lineolaris,  Beaur.)  may  be  instanced.  This  species  is 
one-fourth  inch  in  length,  of  flat,  oblong  form,  with  four-jointed  anten- 
nae, the  joints  being  long.  It  varies  in  color  from  yellowish  gray  to 


J02  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

ochreous  brown,  has  a  yellow  Y-shaped  mark  on  the  scutel,  and  two 
or  three  parallel  dark  veins  on  each  wing  cover.  The  larvae  of  these 
bugs  are  green,  and  broad  oval  in  form.  They  may  be  found  during 
summer  in  great  abundance  in  all  stages  of  development  upon  flowers. 
They  injure  fruit  trees  in  the  spring  by  puncturing  the  leaf  and  flower 
buds  and  the  tender  twigs  and  sucking  the  sap.  They  also  feed  on 
berries,  to  which  they  impart  a  flavor  as  nauseous  as  their  odor. 

Another  abundant  member  of  this  family  is  the  Four-lined  Leaf- 
bug  (Pcecilocapsus  lineatusj.  This  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  pre- 
ceding species,  is  of  a  deep  yellow  color,  ornamented  with  four  black 
lines,  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  body.  It  feeds  on  various 
shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants,  and  is  at  times  seriously  destructive  to 
currant  bushes,  clover  and  other  valuable  plants. 

The  CORIMEL^ENID^E  contains  but  a  single  genus,  the  "Negro-bugs" 
(Gorimelcena),  small,  shining,  almost  round,  beetle-like  insects  of  a 
black  color,  sometimes  with  bluish  or  greenish  reflections.  The  great 
peculiarity  is  the  depth  of  the  scutellum,  which  extends  backward  so 
far  as  to  entirely  cover  the  wings.  These  little  bugs  are  sometimes 
very  destructive  on  strawberry  beds  and  on  the  foliage  of  various 
flowering  plants.  They  also  have  a  great  predilection  for  ripe  raspber- 
ries, to  which  they  give  their  own  disagreeable,  bed-buggy  odor  and 
flavor. 

Among  the  cannibal  bugs  the  most  important  families  are  the 
PENTATOMID^,  EEDUVIAD^E  and  AOANTHIIN^E. 

In  the  first  of  these  groups  we  find  many  species  of  flattened, 
short,  oblong  bugs,  somewhat  under  medium  size,  having  the  large 
scutellum  extended  backward  in  a  rather  slender  point.  The  head 
and  pro  thorax  together  form  an  obtuse  angle,  there  being  no  constric- 
tion to  form  a  neck;  the  antennae  are  five-jointed  and  the  thighs  are 
but  slightly  broadened  and  not  spiny;  the  beak  is  stout.  Although 
the  great  majority  of  the  species  are  predaceous,  and  rank  among  use- 
ful insects,  we  find  among  them  one  serious  pest.  This  is  the  Harle- 
quin Cabbage-bug  (Murgantia  histrionica,  Hahn.),  a  notorious  exception 
to  the  rule,  being  very  destructfve,  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States, 
to  the  vegetable  from  which  it  gets  its  popular  name.  It  is  a  hand- 
some insect,  as  bugs  go  (See  Fig,  40),  of  a  polished  black  color,  with 
the  scutel  margined  and  the  wing  covers  crossed  by  stripes  of  bright 
red  or  orange,  and  with  two  distinct  white  spots  on  the  head  ;  beneath, 
it  is  marked  by  lines  of  yellow  dots.  Dr.  Eiley  says  the  eggs  "  may  be 
likened  to  little  barrels,  for  though  the  sides  are  straight,  the  edges 
are  rounded  off,  and  the  black  bands  recalling  the  hoops,  and  a  black 
spot  near  the  middle  recalling  the  bung-hole,  add  to  the  resemblance." 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  103 

The  larvre,  or  young  nymphae,  are  pale  green,  marked  with  black,  while 
those  more  mature  show  some  of  the  colors  of  the  perfect  insect  and 
have  large  wing-pads.  The  development  is  very  rapid,  often  requiring 
not  more  than  two  weeks  from  the  egg  to  the  mature  insect.  It  attacks 
not  only  cabbage  and  other  cruciferous  plants,  but  sometimes  injures 
peas  and  other  vegetables. 

The  other  members  of  this  family  make  amends  for  the  injuries 
done  by  this  one.  Among  them  we  find  the  Spined  Soldier-bug  (Pod- 
isus  spinosus  Dallas),  long  celebrated  as  a  most  persistent  enemy  of  the 
Colorado  Potato-beetle.  This  insect  is  of  a  dull  green,  and  is  chiefly 
characterized  by  having  the  sides  of  the  pro-thorax  produced  into 
sharp  spines.  The  beak  is  so  strong  that  the  habit  of  the  bug,  even 
when  very  young  and  small,  is  to  impale  the  beetle  larva  oryoung  cater- 
pillar upon  the  end  of  it,  and  hold  it  up  in  the  air  while  sucking  out 
the  fluid  contents  of  the  body. 

The  REDUVIAD^B  are  fiercely  predaceous  and  destroy  great  num- 
bers of  other  insects,  and  are  thus  directly  of  the  greatest  benefit  to 
the  agriculturist.  They  are  more  slender  and  elongate  in  form  and  of 
harder  texture  than  the  members  of  the  preceding  family,  and  some 
are  rather  elegantly  colored.  The  strong,  horny  beak  is  folded  under 
against  the  breast  when  not  in  use.  The  legs  are  stout  in  some  species, 
somewhat  bristly,  but  seldom  toothed  or  spined.  Some  of  the  species 
are  more  than  an  inch  in  length,  but  the  majority  only  about  half  that 
length. 

The  Wheel-bug  (Prionidas  cristatusj,  which  is  quite  common  in  the 
more  southern  States,  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  formidable  species. 
It  is  of  a  shaded  gray  color,  and  has  a  curious  notched  crest  on  the 
pro-thorax,  which  resembles  a  section  of  a  cog-wheel — whence  its 
popular  name. 

The  young  bugs  are  bright  red,  with  black  markings.  They  are 
most  ferocious,  and  Mr.  Glover  says  :  "They  kill  their  prey  by  inserting 
into  it  the  proboscis,  which  ejects  a  most  powerful  poisonous  liquid 
into  the  wound.  The  victim,  thus  pierced,  dies  in  a  very  short  time. 
They  then  leisurely  suck  out  the  juices  and  drop  the  empty  skin/7 

They  attack  all  kinds  of  caterpillars  and  grubs,  and  even  destroy 
one  another  at  times  in  true  cannibal  fashion. 

The  Blood-sucking  Cone-nose  or  Big  Bed-bug  (ConorMnus  sangui- 
sugus  Lee.)  is  sometimes  found  hiding  in  beds  arid  stuffed  furniture,  and 
does  not  hesitate  to  attack  the  rightful  occupants,  upon  whom  it  in- 
flicts very  painful  wounds.  People  have  been  known  to  die  from  the 
effects  of  its  venomed  stabs.  It  is  about  an  inch  in  length,  black 
margined  all  around  with  short  red  dashes. 


104  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

A  similar  but  more  plainly  colored  species  has  been  named  by  Prof. 
Comstock  the  Masked  Bed-bug  hunter  (Opsiccetas  personatus),  from  it» 
habit  of  preying  on  the  genuine  bed-bug.  It  is  an  European  species,, 
but  a  variety  is  also  native  to  the  Eastern  States.  The  young  secrete 
all  over  the  surface  a  viscid  fluid  to  which  dust  and  particles  of  wool 
and  feathers  adhere,  giving  them  a  most  singular  and  disguised  appear- 
ance. The  Rapacious  Soldier-bug  (Reduvius  raptatorius,  Say.)  is  a  slen- 
der, rather  graceful  bug  with  a  long  narrow  head,  and  stout  raptatorial 
front  legs.  The  sides  of  the  thorax  are  sharply  angled.  (See  Fig.  41.) 
It  preys  on  all  soft- bodied  insects.  Of  similar  form  and  habits  is  the 
Many-banded  robber  (Milyas  cinctus,  Fabr.),  which  appears  in  yellowr 
black  and  white  colors. 

The  family  ACANTHIIN^E,  is  represented  by  a  single  species  of  the 
worst  repute — the  mal-odorous  and  cosmopolitan  bed-bug  (Acanthia 
lectularia,  Linn).  Few  people  are  so  happy  as  not  to  have  made  the 
acquaintance  of  this  annoying  insect,  if  not  in  their  own  well-kept  cham- 
bers, at  least  in  those  of  hotels  and  boarding  houses,  from  which  it  can- 
only  by  the  greatest  care  be  excluded.  It  is  of  flat,  broad-oval  form 
and  red-brown  color,  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long.  It  never  acquires 
wings,  and  the  perfect  bugs  can  only  be  known  from  the  young  by  their 
larger  size,  darker  color  and  very  minute  rudiments  of  wing  covers. 
It  is  strictly  nocturnal,  and  hides  by  day  in  the  smallest  cracks  and 
crevices.  It  is  capable  of  enduring  long  fasts,  and  it  is  said  will 
recover  its  vitality  after  being  imprisoned  for  many  months  without 
food. 

A  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  alcohol  is  the  most  certain 
remedy  in  infested  rooms  and  on  bed-steads.  Benzine  and  kerosene 
are  also  much  used,  and  by  dusting  the  sheets  with  pyrethrum  powder,, 
travelers  may  obtain  a  night's  rest  even  in  infested  rooms.  This  bug  is 
said  to  occur  in  myriads  under  the  dead  bark  of  certain  trees  in  the  far 
west,  although,  if  animal  fluids  be  necessary  to  its  development,  it  is 
difficult  to  imagine  on  what  it  can  feed  under  such  circumstances. 

There  are  several  families  of  amphibious  bugs  which  are  chiefly 
interesting  from  their  adaptation  to  walking  lightly  on  the  surface  of 
the  water,  or  in  marshy  spots,  without  having  the  feet  broadened  or 
any  sail-like  or  oar-like  processes  to  aid  locomotion. 

The  Water-stiiders  (HYDROBATIDJE)  have  the  middle  and  hinder 
legs  very  long,  the  bodies  slender  and  flattened,  and  no  distinct  scutel- 
lum.  They  are  predaceous  in  habit,  and  leap  into  the  air  after  the  small 
flies  and  gnats  on  which  they  subsist. 

Among  the  Aquatic  bugs  are  the  Water  scorpions  and  Giant  water 
bugs  (]$"EPIDJE),  where  we  find  some  species  that  exceed  in  size  all 


OUTLINES    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 


105 


other  species  of  the  Order.  They  possess  oar-like  legs  and  flat  bodies. 
The  species  are  all  carnivorous  and  are  provided  with  strong,  sharp 
beaks,  upon  which  the  bodies,  not  only  of  other  insects,  but  of  tad- 
poles and  young  fish,  are  impaled  until  they  can  be  drained  of  the  vital 
fluids.  The  Water  scorpions  are  of  slender  form,  and  the  abdomen  is 
terminated  by  a  pair  of  long,  slender,  grooved  styles,  which,  when  shut 
together,  form  a  breathing  tube  that  can  be  elevated  above  the  water, 
while  the  insect  is  making  its  predatory  excursions  beneath  the  sur- 
face. The  Giant  water  bug  (Belostoma  grisea,  Say.)  is  more  than  two 
inches  in  length,  by  one  in  width,  with  a  flat,  boat-shaped  body  and 
powerful  swimming  legs.  It  also  flies  long  distances,  and  is  often 
attracted  in  great  numbers  to  electric  lights.  The  Back-swimmers  (No- 
TONECTID^E)  swim  in  a  reversed  position,  and  have  very  long,  feathery 
hind  legs. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

Order  HEMIPTERA.    Sub-Order  HOMOPTERA. 

CICADAS,  LEAF-HOPPERS,  PLANT-LICE   AND   BARK-LICE, 

[Fig.  42.] 


17-year  Cicada  (C.  septemdecim,  Linn.) ,  after  Riley .  «,  pnpa  or 
nymph;  ft,  shell  of  same;  c.  perfect  Cicada:  d,  punctures  in 
twig  made  for  the  eggs;  e,  eggs,  much  magnified. 

In  this  division  of  beaked  insects  we  find  the  wings — where  these 
organs  are  present — of  the  same  texture  throughout,  and  closing  roof- 


106  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

like  over  the  body.  In  several  large  groups  they  are  transparent,  and 
supported  by  many  or  few  strong  veins ;  in  others  they  are  tough  and 
opaque,  and  show  many  different  colors.  The  head  is  broad,  but 
usually  very  short,  without  any  neck,  and  has  the  beak  arising  so  far 
under  that  it  seems  to  be  attached  to  the  breast,  against  which  it  may 
be  closely  folded.  The  eyes  are  round  and  prominent.  The  antennae 
in  the  larger  species  are  very  inconspicuous,  but  in  the  more  minute 
forms  are  long,  and  often  beautifully  feathered.  Some  species  are 
provided  with  a  strong,  horny  ovipositor  by  which  the  eggs  are  inserted 
into  woody  stems  or  branches  of  trees ;  others  place  their  eggs  on 
exposed  surfaces,  or  under  loosened  bark. 

The  most  important  families  of  homopterous  insects  are  the  CICA- 
DID^E,  MEMBRACID^S,  JASSIDJB,  APHIDIDJB  and  COCCID^:. 

In  the  first  of  these  families  we  find  the  large  and  noisy  Harvest- 
flies  or  Dog-day  flies  (genus  Cicada J.  They  have  an  oval  form,  with 
the  body  enclosed  in  a  firm,  shelly  crust,  head  as  broad  as  the  thorax, 
protruding  eyes,  with  three  distinct  ocelli  between  them,  and  the  an- 
tennae are  short  and  awl-shaped  or  end  in  a  sharp-pointed  bristle.  The 
feet  are  three-jointed;  wings  large  and  glassy;  abdomen  of  the  females 
bearing  an  ovipositor  which  rests  in  a  fissure  on  the  under  side  of  the 
abdomen,  and  is  adapted  for  sawing  and  boring  into  hard  wood.  The 
males  have  a  most  ingenious  musical  apparatus  for  producing  the  deaf- 
ening buzzing  or  "drumming "  with  which  our  shade  trees  and  groves 
resound  from  early  summer  until  autumn.  These  instruments  are  little 
membranous  sacs,  which  are  gathered  into  fine  plaits  and  fit  over  cavi- 
ties at  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  The  sound  is  produced  by  rapid 
expansion  and  contraction,  by  means  of  strong  muscles  within  that 
part  of  the  body. 

The  most  interesting  of  these  insects  is  the  Periodical  or  Seventeen- 
year  Cicada,  or  "Locust" — incorrectly  so-called—  (Cicada  septemdecim, 
Linn.)  see  Fig.  42,  which  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the  longest- 
lived  insect  known  to  entomologists.  The  perfect  cicadas  are  of  a  dark 
brown  or  black  color,  with  red  eyes  and  glassy,  orange-veined  wings, 
beneath  which  are  situated  the  "  drums,"  whose  sound  is  thought  by 
some  to  be  the  word  "  Pharaoh,"  very  much  prolonged. 

These  singular  insects  appear  in  the  same  locality  only  once  in 
seventeen  or  thirteen  years — the  development  in  the  Southern  States 
being  somewhat  more  rapid  than  in  the  Northern  States.  Their  life, 
as  perfect  insects,  is  comparatively  brief,  lasting  not  more  than  five  or 
six  weeks.  The  females  saw  numerous  consecutive,  longitudinal  slits 
in  the  branches  of  fruit  and  forest  trees,  often  severely  injuring  the 
trees  in  the  process.  The  young  hatch  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  107 

and  drop  to  the  ground,  into  which  they  burrow  and  where  they  remain, 
descending  deeper  and  deeper  year  by  year,  feeding  on  the  rootlets  of 
trees  and  growing  very  slowly,  until  ready  to  change  to  pupae,  when 
they  begin  to  ascend.  The  pupa  is  active,  and  after  emerging  from  the 
ground  crawls  to  the  trunk  of  some  tree  or  shrub,  to  which  it  clings 
with  its  spiny  claws,  while  the  perfect  cicada  emerges.  As  these  pupa 
shells  retain  their  form,  except  for  the  slit  on  the  top,  through  which 
the  imago  escaped,  they  are  often  mistaken  for  dead  "locusts,"  and 
it  used  to  be  a  popular  superstition  that  they  "  sang  until  they  burst." 
They  appear  in  May  or  Juue. 

The  annual  Dog-day  or  Harvest-flies,  of  which  there  are  but  two 
or  three,  not  very  distinct  species,  in  this  country,  develop  about  mid- 
summer, and  sing  late  in  the  afternoon  and  in  the  twilight,  until  frost. 
The  most  common  species  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  seventeen-year 
species,  of  a  green  and  black  color,  having  the  body  thickly  covered 
by  a  whitish  powder  or  "bloom,"  from  which  circumstance  it  received 
its  name,  Cicada  pruinosa,  Say. 

The  Tree-hoppers  (MEMBRACID^E)  are  rather  small  insects,  but 
among  them  are  some  of  the  most  singular  and  grotesque  forms  of 
animate  life.  The  pro-thorax  is  the  part  most  subject  to  variation. 
This  often  extends  backward  almost  to  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  or  the 
front  edge  is  prolonged  into  a  horn  that  curves  far  over  the  head. 

The  Buffalo  Tree-hopper  (Ceresa  bubalus,  Fabr.)  exhibits  in  its 
form  a  variety  of  triangles ;  in  front,  on  top,  and  on  each  side,  one  or 
more  of  these  geometric  figures  can  be  traced.  It  is  of  a  dull  green 
color,  nearly  one-half  inch  in  length,  and  the  female  often  does  consid- 
erable damage  to  the  tender  twigs  of  fruit  trees  by  the  numerous  slits 
which  she  saws  in  them  for  the  reception  of  her  eggs. 

Among  the  Leaf-hoppers  (JASSID^:)  are  a  number  of  small,  but 
very  destructive  species.  These  insects  have  oblong  forms,  long 
wings,  often  beautifully  colored,  a  rounded  pro-thorax  and  a  triangular 
head.  A  few  are  about  one-half  inch  in  length,  but  the  greater  number 
are  very  small.  The  Grape-vine  Leaf-hopper  (Erythroneura  vitis,  Har.), 
commonly  but  erroneously  called  "  Thrips,"  frets  the  leaves  of  the  vine 
with  innumerable  punctures  until  they  turn  brown  and  wither.  These 
insects  are  often  so  numerous  late  in  summer  that  they  leap  off  in 
clouds  when  the  vines  are  shaken.  Other  species  are  injurious  to 
roses,  growing  grain  and  grass. 

The  Plant-lice  (APHIDID^)  are  a  very  comprehensive  and  interest- 
ing class  of  insects.  They  range  from  small  to  exceedingly  minute, 
but  make  up  in  numbers  what  they  lack  in  size,  and  include  some  of 
the  most  destructive  pests  known  to  the  agriculturist.  They  are  soft- 


108  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

bodied  and  gregarious,  and  most  numerous  in  the  wingless  forms. 
The  eyes  are  usually  quite  large  and  of  a  dark  color,  and  the  antennae 
of  many  species  long  and  thread-like;  the  beak  is  two-jointed,  and  in 
some  cases  as  long  or  longer  than  the  body ;  legs,  in  the  leaf-feeding 
species,  rather  long  and  slender,  but  in  the  root-feeding  and  gall-inhab- 
iting forms  short  and  stout;  wings  thin  and  transparent,  with  dark 
veins  on  the  anterior  margin.  Near  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  on  the 
back,  many  species  have  a  pair  of  little  tubes  through  which  exudes  a 
sweet  fluid,  sometimes  in  such  quantities  as  to  thickly  besprinkle  the 
plants  infested.  This  is  then  termed  "  honey  dew,"  although  the  genu- 
ine "honey  dew"  is  an  excretion  from  the  leaves  of  certain  plants 
during  dry,  hot  weather.  Ants,  as  is  well  known,  are  extremely  fond 
of  "aphis  nectar,"  and  induce  the  insects  to  yield  it  in  large  quantities 
by  caressing  them  with  their  antenna,  for  which  reason  they  are  called 
the  "ants7  cows."  Other  species  of  aphides  excrete  from  a  part  or  the 
whole  of  the  surface  of  the  body  a  whitish  powder  or  "  bloom,"  or 
numerous  filaments  of  fine,  cottony  matter,  in  which  they  become  com- 
pletely enveloped.  The  reproductive  processes  of  aphides  are  very 
complicated  and  remarkable,  and  have  been  the  subject  of  much  care- 
ful study  and  experiment.  Our  knowledge  in  regard  to  them  may  be 
briefly  summarized  as  follows :  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year — usually 
late  in  summer  or  early  autumn — individuals  of  both  sexes  are  pro- 
duced, and  the  females  lay  eggs,  which  in  some  species  hatch  immedi- 
ately, in  others  remain  dormant  over  winter.  The  sexed  aphides  were 
formerly  supposed  to  be  the  winged  form,  but  later  discovery  shows 
that  there  is  not  necessarily  any  connection  between  the  possession  of 
wings  and  of  true  sexual  organs,  the  wings  being  simply  an  adaptation 
for  migration  from  one  locality  or  plant  to  another.  The  form  hatching 
from  the  egg  is  denominated  the  "stem  mother,"  and  in  the  course  of  a 
few  days  begins  a  peculiar  process  of  reproduction,  called  partheno- 
genesis or  agamis  reproduction,  bringing  forth  her  young  alive  and  in 
very  rapid  succession.  This  process  has  been  likened  to  the  multipli- 
cation of  certain  kinds  of  plants  by  slipping  and  budding.  The  off- 
spring of  the  "stem  mother "  begin,  in  their  turn,  to  produce  vivipa- 
rously  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  and  in  this  way  the  multiplication  of 
individuals  proceeds  at  a  most  extraordinary  rate.  Fortunately  for  the 
safety  of  vegetation,  plant  lice  have  a  variety  of  natural  enemies.  They 
may  also  be  destroyed  by  alkaline  applications,  tobacco  smoke  or  in- 
fusion, or  kerosene  emulsions.  Poisons  such  as  Paris  green  or  London 
purple  do  not  have  much  effect  upon  them,  as  they  do  not  eat  leaves, 
but  puncture  them  and  extract  the  sap  from  beneath  the  cuticle. 


OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  109 

Among  the  excessively  injurious  species  of  Aphides  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Grape  Phylloxera  (P.  vastatrix,  Plan.)  which  has  caused  such 
wholesale  destruction  of  the  vineyards  in  France  and  other  European 
countries,  and  prevents  the  cultivation  of  many  choice  varieties  of  grapes 
in  this  country.  This  species  occurs  in  two  forms,  one  inhabiting 
warty  galls  on  the  foliage,  but  the  most  destructive  form  occurring  on 
the  roots,  which  it  causes  to  decay.  This  species  and  its  allies  do  not 
produce  the  young  alive,  but  always  by  means  of  eggs.  Another  root- 
louse,  belonging  in  another  family,  is  the  Woolly  louse  of  the  apple 
(Schizoneura  lanigera,  Hausm.)  This  also  sometimes  appears  above 
ground  on  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  and  is  one  of  the  species  that  clothes 
itself  in  a  cottony  or  woolly  excretion. 

The  Hop  Aphis  (Phorodon  humultj  often  occasions  great  loss  in 
hop-yards,  and  Dr.  Eiley  has  made  the  interesting  discovery  that  in 
autumn  the  winged  migrant  form  resorts  to  plum  trees  and  there  pro- 
duces the  sexed  individuals  whose  eggs  hibernate  on  the  plum,  on  the 
leaves  of  which  the  first  spring  generations  feed,  becoming  winged 
«arly  in  summer  and  again  returning  to  the  hop-yards.  The  largest 
species  are  found  on  the  hickory  and  sycamore  trees.  These  belong 
to  the  genus  Lachnus,  and  when  thickly  congregated  on  the  trunks 
and  branches  are  a  most  repulsive  sight.  Some  species,  especially 
those  of  the  genus  Pemphigus,  cause  very  singular  galls  on  trees  of  the 
|3Oplar  and  willow  family.  As  nearly  all  aphids  are  more  or  less  injuri- 
ous, it  is  out  of  the  question  to  attempt  here  to  give  a  list,  even  of 
those  that  are  serious  pests. 

In  the  family  COCCTDLD^:  are  grouped  the  Scale-insects  or  Bark- 
lice,  the  Mealy-bugs  and  a  few  similar  forms,  which  rival  the  members 
of  the  preceding  family  in  rapidity  of  increase,  in  injurious  effect  upon 
the  plants  attacked  and  in  the  difficulty  with  which  they  are  eradicated 
or  even  kept  in  check.  In  these  insects  only  the  males  undergo  trans- 
formation, protected  by  a  small  larval  scale.  They  acquire  wings,  two 
in  number,  very  transparent  and  with  only  one  or  two  veins.  The 
antennae  are  long,  and,  under  the  microscope,  are  seen  to  be  many- 
jointed  and  hairy  or  plumy.  The  mouth  parts  are  undeveloped,  and  in 
their  place  we  find  a  second  pair  of  eyes.  The  females  never  acquire 
wings,  and  most  of  the  species  become  fixed  in  one  spot  very  shortly 
after  hatching,  the  long  but  extremely  fine  beak  penetrating  to  the  sap- 
wood  of  the  tree  or  shrub  infested  and  slowly  imbibing  the  sap  required 
to  perfect  the  growth  and  development  of  the  insect.  Immediately 
upon  becoming  fixed  the  surface  of  the  body  exudes  a  waxy  substance 
that  very  soon  forms,  together  with  the  motled  skins,  a  complete  shell 
or  scale  over  the  body.  After  being  visited  by  the  winged  male,  the 


110  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  4 

eggs  begin  to  form  and  soon  fill  the  body  of  the  mother  insect.  Upon 
hatching,  the  very  minute  lice  creep  from  under  the  scale  and  disperse 
with  great  activity  all  over  the  tree  or  branch,  from  whence  some  are 
carried  by  birds  and  insects,  or  are  wafted  by  the  wind  to  other  trees, 
and  in  this  way  they  are  disseminated  from  one  orchard  or  vineyard 
or  grove  to  another.  Besides  the  waxy  scale,  some  species  excrete  a 
great  quantity  of  white,  cottony  matter,  as  a  protection  to  the  eggs. 
This  substance  is  arranged  in  various  forms  characteristic  of  the  spe- 
cies. 

Among  the  coccids  that  form  simple  scales  is  the  widely-distributed 
Oyster-shell  Bark-louse  of  the  apple  (Mytilaspis  pomonum,  Bouche.) 
This  species  covers  the  branches  and  trunks  of  trees  with  its  pale 
brown,  somewhat  oyster-shaped  scales,  beneath  which  are  the  females, 
each  with  its  almost  invisible  beak  penetrating  to  the  growing  wood 
and  extracting  sap  in  such  quantities  as  to  retard  the  growth  of  the 
tree,  and  reduce  the  quantity  and  impair  the  quality  of  the  fruit. 
The  young  are  hatched  late  in  spring,  and  are  active  for  a  few  days 
only.  Alkaline  washes  or  kerosene  emulsion  applied  at  this  time  are 
most  effectual  in  preventing  their  increase.  They  have  a  few  natural 
enemies  in  the  shape  of  Coccinelid  beetles,  Lace- wing  fly  larvae  and  one 
or  two  minute  parasitic  flies.  Two  similar  scales  of  other  species  are 
found  in  the  South  on  orange  trees.  Several  species  of  white  scales 
(ChionaspisjaTQ  also  found  on  apple,  pear,  pine  and  willow.  A  smaller, 
white,  scurfy  scale  (Diaspis)  is  sometimes  very  abundant  on  the  stems 
of  roses,  blackberries  and  raspberries.  The  scale  insects  most  trouble- 
some in  green-houses  and  on  house-plants,  and  occurring  also  on  the 
orange,  belong  to  the  genus  Aspidiotus.  Among  the  scale  insects  that 
produce  cottony  masses  is  Pulvinaria  innumerabalis  (Rath.),  which  ap- 
pears in  great  numbers  on  grape  vines,  and  especially  on  maple  and 
elm  trees,  covering  the  bark  with  its  masses  of  flocculent  matter  and 
honey-dew  like  excretions,  greatly  disfiguring  and  injuring  vines  and 
trees.  The  orange  tree  is  especially  subject  to  the  attacks  of  scale 
insects;  and  one  of  these,  the  Fluted  scale  f  leery  a  purchasij,  seriously 
threatened  the  existence  of  the  groves  of  California,  until  Dr.  Riley 
happily  discovered  its  chief  natural  enemy  in  Australia,  from  which 
country  the  scale  had  been  introduced,  and  secured  the  importation  of 
the  useful  Lady-bird  beetle,  which  in  about  two  years  has  almost  exter- 
minated the  particular  species  of  pest  on  which  it  naturally  preys. 

The  Mealy  bugs  (Dactylopius) — especially  troublesome  on  house- 
plants  and  in  green-houses—while  agreeing  with  the  scale  insects  in 
many  particulars,  do  not  secrete  scales  and  the  females  do  not  become 
fixed  in  one  place.  The  bodies  are  covered  with  a  white  powdery 


OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


Ill 


matter,  with  short  filaments  around  the  anterior  end  and  sides  and  sev- 
eral long  ones  at  the  tail.  One  of  the  Coccidse  (Coccus  cacti}  is  the 
insect  so  well  known  as  "cochineal,"  which,  until  the  invention  of  the 
aniline  dyes,  was  the  source  of  the  beautiful  red  and  crimson  colors  so 
much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
Order  HEMIPTERA.     Sub-Order  PARASITICA. 

HUMAN   AND   CATTLE   PARASITES. 

[Fig.   44.] 


The  Short-nosed  Ox-louse  (Hamatopinus  eurysternus)  after  Osborne.  a. 
female  ;  b.  rostrum  (beak) ;  c,  under  surface  of  last  joint  of  male  ; 
e-  egg  ;  /.  surface  of  egg,  all  greatly  magnified. 

In  this  Sub-order  we  find  the  most  repulsive  and  annoying  of  all 
insects — the  true  parasites  of  mammals,  not  excepting  man.  The  gen- 
eral structural  characters  are  depicted  with  great  exactness  in  the 
illustration,  Fig.  44. 

The  true  lice  are  all  very  small  insects,  which  never  acquire  wings. 
They  remain  close  to  the  skin  and  suck  the  blood  of  the  animals  in- 
fested, causing  great  discomfort  and  irritation  by  their  presence  and 
their  innumerable  punctures.  They  are  the  result  of  neglect  and  squalor, 
and  on  cattle  and  horses  indicate  a  very  unthrifty  physical  condition. 
The  proboscis  is  merely  a  fleshy  prolongation  of  the  front  of  the  head, 
at  the  end  of  which  are  a  pair  of  extremely  sharp  lancets,  which  are 
retracted  within  the  head  when  not  in  use.  At  the  base  of  these,  as 
shown  at  &,  in  the  figure,  is  a  rosette  of  sharp,  recurved  hooks,  which, 

E— 8 


112  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

when  the  insect  is  feeding,  are  thrust  into  the  skin  to  support  the 
lancets.  The  eyes  are  simple  and  very  small,  and  the  antennae  very 
short  and  minutely  bristly.  The  legs  have  thick,  short,  notched  joints 
and  end  in  a  strong  curved  claw,  that  when  closed  down,  meets  a  little 
tooth  on  the  shank — a  provision  for  clinging  to  and  climbing  hairs. 
There  are  no  transformations.  The  eggs  are  called  "nits,"  and  are 
firmly  glued  at  one  end  to  the  hairs. 

Three  species  attack  man  under  certain  external  conditions  of  pov- 
erty and  uocleanliness,  namely:  The  Head-louse  (Pediculus  capitis), 
which  is  confined  to  the  hair  and  skin  of  the  head,  and  is  most  frequently 
found  on  neglected  children ;  the  Body-louse  (Pediculus  vestmenta), 
which  hides  in  the  seams  and  folds  of  the  clothing,  and  draws  the  blood 
frpm  any  part  of  the  body;  and  the  Crab-louse  (PtMrius  pubis\  which 
attacks  the  arm  pits  and  pubic  region.  These  pests  commonly  aggra- 
vate the  miseries  of  military  prisons  and  camps  and  other  situations 
where  human  beings  are  congregated  without  provision  for  cleanliness 
and  lack  nourishing  food.  Mercurial  ointment  is  the  best  remedy,  with 
entire  change  of  clothing,  where  possible. 

The  true  lice  that  are  sometimes  found  on  thin  and  neglected 
horses,  cattle,  swine  and  other  animals,  differ  very  slightly  from  those 
found  on  man.  They  are  placed  in  the  genus  Hematopinus.  Strong^ 
infusions  of  tobacco  or  of  larkspur  seeds  are  among  the  remedial 
washes,  also  an  ointment  of  kerosene  and  lard,  thoroughly  mixed  ;  but 
the  experiments  of  Prof.  0.  P.  Gillette,  of  Colorado,  have  demonstrated 
the  superiority  of  that  valuable  insecticide,  the  ordinary  kerosene  emul- 
sion, over  every  other  preparation,  in  ridding  animals  of  these  pests. 
Dr.  Eiley,  whose  invention  it  was.  says  of  it :  "It  has  long  since  be- 
come recognized  as  an  insecticide  of  unrivaled  merit,  against  most  of 
the  insect  enemies  of  plants,  and  also  in  the  case  of  animals,  as  a  means 
against  the  Buffalo-gnat,  Horse-fly,  etc.  *  *  *  The  only  precaution 
necessary  with  this  substance  is  to  see  that  the  emulsion  is  properly 
made,  and  that  in  winter  time  the  animal  be  protected  from  severe 
cold." 

There  are  certain  other  kinds  of  lice  occasionally  found  on  cattle, 
belonging  to  the  same  group  with  chicken-lice,  bird-lice  and  so  forth, 
which,  although  they  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  the  true  lice, 
are  structurally  very  different  and  form  a  low  sub-order  of  the  Neu- 
roptera.  The  remedies  for  these  are  the  same  as  for  the  more  common 
species. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  113 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
Order  VI.     OKTHOPTERA. 

[Fig.  45.] 


Old  World  Migratory  Locust  (Pachytylus  migratorius.) 

In  this  Order  of  so-called  straight-winged  insects  we  find  many 
unusually  interesting  species.  Geologically  and  historically  they  are 
the  oldest  of  insects.  In  the  stratified  rocks  their  remains  are  found 
among  the  very  earliest  forms  of  animal  life  ;  while  the  "  locusts,'7  so 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  equally  ancient  sec- 
ular history,  as  suddenly  swooping  down  upon  a  country  and  "devour- 
ing every  green  thing,"  are  among  the  typical  representatives.  Except- 
ing the  Cicadas,  described  in  a  preceding  chapter,  we  find  among  the 
Orthoptera  the  only  insects  provided  with  a  special  musical  apparatus, 
each  species  having  its  own  peculiar  instrument  and  contributing  its 
characteristic  notes,  called  stridulations,  to  the  insect  concerts  that 
enliven  the  summer  days  and  nights.  Many  of  the  most  singular  imi- 
tative forms  that  occur  in  nature  are  also  found  here  in  the  "  walking 
sticks"  and  "walking  leaves"  that  compose  one  of  the  groups;  and 
by  many  other  peculiarities  of  structure  and  habit  the  Orthoptera  chal- 
lenge attention  from  the  student  of  pure  science,  the  lover  of  nature, 
and  the  economist. 

The  straight-winged  insects  are  nearly  all  of  a  size  to  be  examined 
without  the  aid  of  a  microscope,  and  some  forms  have  been  considered 
superior  to  all  others  as  subjects  for  dissection  in  the  study  of  internal 
as  well  as  external  structure.  While  they  exhibit  much  variation  in 
form,  all  the  more  conspicuous  species  agree  in  the  vertical  position  of 
the  head,  the  biting  mouth,  the  large  pro-thorax,  and  the  parchment-like 
wing-covers — when  these  organs  are  present. 

The  head  is  usually  large,  and  though  somewhat  sunken  under  the 
pro-thorax  in  many  species,  is  freely  movable  on  the  flexible  neck.  The 
eyes  are  round  or  oblong,  and  prominent  in  most  species.  The  antennae 


114  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

are  either  short,  stout  and  few-jointed,  or  very  long  and  slender  with 
an  indefinite  number  of  indistinct  joints. 

In  these  insects  we  find  the  mouth  parts  particularly  well  devel- 
oped, and  adapted  for  biting  and  masticating  solid  food.  The  mandi- 
bles are  short,  but  broad  and  strong,  with  a  toothed  cutting  edge  ;  the 
maxillse  are  adapted  to  the  office  of  holding  the  food  in  place,  in  which 
the  two  pairs  of  mouth-feelers  (palpi)  assist;  the  lower  lip  (labiuin) 
forms  the  floor  to  the  mouth,  and  the  unusually  long  and  broad  labrimi 
closes  over  the  other  mouth  parts  like  a  true  lip,  when  the  insect  is  not 
feeding.  The  pro-thorax  only  appears  on  the  upper  side  of  the  body, 
and  in  a  great  majority  of  the  species  it  is  more  or  less  saddle-shaped, 
often  with  a  longitudinal  ridge  on  top.  There  is  much  variation  in  the 
length,  thickness  and  character  of  the  surface  of  the  legs,  which  are 
adapted  for  running,  jumping,  burrowing,  grasping  and  other  uses. 
The  wing-covers  are  composed  of  strong  membrane  more  or  less  thick- 
ened and  opaque,  in  which  the  venation  is  peculiar  to  the  species. 
They  usually  over-lap  at  the  bases  or  for  their  entire  length,  and  either 
lie  flat  upon  the  back  or  are  concave,  and  enclose  the  sides  also  like  a 
pod.  The  under  wings  are  very  broad,  in  many  species  composed  of 
transparent,  but  closely  net-veined  membrane.  A  few  kinds  display  in 
life  various  beautiful  colors,  which  shortly  disappear  in  cabinet  speci- 
mens. When  not  in  use  these  wings  are  folded  in  fan-like  plaits  and 
hidden  under  the  upper  pair.  In  the  hind  body  we  can  count  eight  or 
nine  distinct  segments,  attached  to  the  last  of  which  are  the  variously 
shaped  claspers  of  the  males,  and  the  equally  varied  ovipositing  organs 
of  the  females.  On  the  under  side  of  this  part  of  the  body  the  protect- 
ing crust  seems  thinner  and  more  flexible  than  elsewhere,  and  expands 
and  contracts  with  the  inhalation  and  exhalation  of  air. 

The  Orthoptera  are  very  voracious  in  all  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment, and  while  the  majority  feed  on  growing  vegetation,  others  are 
predaceous,  and  a  considerable  number  are  serious  household  pests, 
on  account  of  their  preference  for  the  contents  of  pantries  and  the 
offal  of  kitchens. 

The  transformations  are  incomplete,  and  the  young  differ  from  the 
mature  insects  even  less  than  young  bugs  differ  from  those  that  have 
acquired  the  perfect  form. 

There  is  considerable  confusion  in  the  terms  applied  to  some  of 
the  groups  in  this  Order.  Thus  the  true  locusts  are  very  generally 
called  "grasshoppers,"  while  the  term  "locust"  is  in  this  country  ap- 
plied to  the  Periodical  Cicada.  Again,  all  the  more  conspicuous  forms 
included  by  entomologists  among  "  grasshoppers "  are  not  found  on 
grass  at  all,  but  inhabit  the  tops  of  the  tallest  trees.  Nor  does  this 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  115 

inapt  nomenclature  occur  only  in  popular  language,  for  we  find  the 
LOCUSTID^E  include  only  the  green  grasshoppers  and  other  solitary 
species,  while  the  genuine,  often  gregarious,  and  infinitely  more  destruc- 
tive locusts  are  placed  in  the  Family  ACRIDIDJE. 

All  the  more  important  American  species  of  ORTHOPTERA  are 
found  in  six  Families,  namely :  Crickets  (GRYLLID^E)  ;  Green  Grass- 
hoppers and  Katydids  (LocusTiD^i) ;  True  Locusts  (ACRIDID^E)  ;  Walk- 
ing sticks  or  Specters  (PHASMID^E)  ;  Soothsayers,  Devil's  horses  (MAN- 
TID^;)  and  Cockroaches  (BLATTID^E).  The  first  three  Families  form  a 
section  of  the  Order  distinguished  from  their  mode  of  progression  as 
the  Jumpers  (SALTATORIA)  ;  the  fourth  Family  includes  the  Walkers 
(AMBULATORIA)  ;  the  fifth  the  Graspers  (RAPTATORIA)  ;  the  sixth  the 
Runners  (CuRSORiA). 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Order,  ORTHOPTERA.     Section,  SALTATORIA. 

CRICKETS,  GRASSHOPPERS,  KATYDIDS,   AND   LOCUSTS. 

The  jumping  Orthoptera  include  all  the  musical  and  nearly  all  the 
injurious  species,  namely,  the  Crickets,  Green  Grasshoppers  and  Lo- 
custs. The  Crickets  (GRYLLID^E)  are  easily  separated  into  three  groups, 
Mole  crickets,  House  and  Field  crickets  and  Tree  crickets,  each  con- 
taining comparatively  few  species.  They  all  agree  in  having  somewhat 
cylindrical  bodies,  either  short  and  stout  or  slender  and  elongate,  and 
always  terminate  in  more  or  less  conspicuous  stylets  or  a  long,  exserted 
ovipositor.  The  head  is  large,  roundish,  or  obtusely  triangular;  eyes 
hemispherical,  widely  separated;  antennte  long,  slender  and  tapering; 
upper  lip  nearly  circular,  and  the  palpi,  of  which  both  pairs  are  well 
developed,  are  somewhat  club-shaped.  The  pro-thorax  is  broad  and  of 
a  firm,  horny  or  shelly  texture.  The  wings  and  wing  covers,  except  in 
the  Tree  crickets,  cover  only  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  the  abdomen. 
The  wing  covers  are  of  thick,  leathery  or  mica-like  membrane,  with  a 
peculiar  ridged  venation,  by  means  of  which  their  calls  and  chirps  are 
produced.  The  legs  vary  in  the  development  of  certain  parts  to  cor- 
respond with  the  habits  of  the  species,  but  the  hinder  pair  always  have 
large  thighs  and  more  or  less  spiny  shanks. 

The  Mole  crickets  do  not  jump,  but  are  peculiar  for  their  burrow- 
ing habits,  and  seldom  emerge  from  their  subterranean  abodes  until 
after  nightfall.  They  are  large,  stout  insects,  of  dull  brown  colors,  and 


116  OUTLINES   OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

have  the  surface  thickly  clothed  with  a  soft  pubescence — in  this,  as  in 
many  other  particulars,  imitating  the  genuine  mole.  In  the  fore  legs 
all  the  joints  are  flattened  and  broadened,  the  tibiae  spreading  out  like 
the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  having  on  the  lower  edge  four  long,  horny, 
finger-like  processes,  so  that  they  are  almost  exact  miniatures  of  the 
shovel-like  fore  feet  of  the  animal  from  which  they  are  named.  These 
insects  are  usually  found  in  damp  soils,  where  their  horizontal  galleries 
are  betrayed  by  the  little  ridges  which  appear  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  They  feed  upon  roots  and  under-ground  stems  of  plants,  va- 
rying their  diet  by  devouring  any  burrowing  larvae  or  exposed  pupae 
with  which  they  come  in  contact  in  their  tunneling  operations.  The 
most  common  Northern  species  is  Gryllotalpa  boreales,  Burm,  while  in 
the  Southern  States  O.  longipennis  is  more  frequently  met  with. 

The  House  and  Field  crickets  live  in  chimneys,  stone  walls  and 
similar  situations,  or  in  holes  in  the  ground.  Modern  methods  in  build- 
ing have  banished  the  "  cricket  on  the  hearth,"  whose  cheerful  chirp 
formerly  blended  with  the  cosy  "  song"  of  the  tea-kettle,  inspiring  in 
poets  and  novelists  some  of  their  most  beautiful  thoughts  on  the  com- 
forts of  home. 

The  House  Cricket  (Gryllus  domesticus)  is  of  a  brown  or  grayish 
color,  and  is  an  immigrant  from  Europe  and  the  far  East.  It  is  quite 
abundant  in  our  eastern  cities,  but  is  not  yet  very  generally  dissemi- 
nated over  the  country.  The  larger  Field  Crickets  are  black  with 
brown  wings,  and  the  males  of  some  species  survive  the  winter  and 
may  be  heard  chirping  during  warm  evenings  early  in  the  spring.  They 
all  belong  in  the  same  genus  with  the  Mole  and  House  Crickets,  and 
show  much  variation  in  coloring  and  in  the  development  of  the  wings. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  in  masses  of  two  cfr  three  hundred,  but  are  not 
enclosed  in  a  sac  as  are  those  of  the  Mole  Cricket.  The  young  hatch 
about  midsummer  and  disperse  in  all  directions,  feeding  on  all  varieties 
of  vegetation,  often  proving  quite  injurious.  The  species  of  Nemobius 
appear  later  in  the  summer,  are  of  a  dull,  pale  brown  color,  sometimes 
obscurely  striped,  and  in  one  or  two  species  the  wings  are  wanting,  and 
the  shelly  elytra  (wing  covers)  somewhat  loosely  enclose  the  body.  The 
Tree  Crickets  are  of  more  slender  and  delicate  form,  with  broader  and 
more  glassy  wing  covers  and  long  slender  legs  and  antennae.  The 
males  of  CEcanthm  niveus  Har.  and  CE.  latipennis  Eiley  are  white  or 
greenish  white,  the  wing  covers  transparent,  flat,  and  when  closed,  com- 
pletely over-lapping  and  crossed  by  W-shaped  ridges.  When  stridulat- 
ing,  these  wings  are  elevated  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  body  and 
the  surfaces  rubbed  together  with  a  motion  too  swift  to  Ue  followed  by 
the  eye,  producing  a  metallic  "  whirr  "  that  is  incredibly  loud  and  pierc- 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  117 

ing  in  comparison  with  the  size  and  delicate  texture  of  the  insect. 
The  females  are  quite  different  in  appearance,  being  slender  and  almost 
cylindrical,  with  the  wing  covers  curving  down  at  the  sides  so  as  to 
partly  enclose  the  body.  The  ovipositor  is  slender  but  very  strong  and 
'horny,  nearly  as  long  as  the  abdomen,  and  terminates  in  a  blunt  tip 
beset  with  minute  points.  With  this  instrument  the  female  of  (E.  niveus 
pierces  the  young  canes  of  grape  or  of  raspberry,  depositing  in  a  row 
a  considerable  number  of  eggs.  (E.  latipennis  forces  hers  into  the  pith 
of  stems  or  into  bark  through  a  series  of  pinhole-like  punctures 
from  one -half  an  inch  to  one  inch  apart.  The  punctured  twigs  are 
invariably  killed,  and  the  insects  occasionally  do  considerable  damage ; 
but  as  these  crickets  feed  almost  entirely  upon  aphides  and  other  mi- 
nute pests,  they  make  ample  compensation  for  all  the  injury  that  they 
do,  and  may  be  accounted  beneficial  rather  than  injurious. 

The  most  aesthetically  interesting  insects  among  the  Locustidce  are 
the  "  Katydids."  The  peculiar,  interrupted  stridulations  of  these  little 
tree-top  musicians  have  inspired  many  a  poetic  gem  and  dainty  bit  of 
imaginative  prose.  Nor  are  they  merely  favorites  with  the  poets,  who, 
for  the  most  part,  know  them  only  by  their  notes  ;^  but  the  naturalist, 
who  keeps  them  as  pets,  finds  in  their  habits  and  histories  most  instruct- 
ive and  suggestive  revelations  of  insect  life.  They  are  mostly  of  large 
size,  and  of  a  bright  green  color,  in  this  assimilating  closely  to  the  foli- 
age amid  which  they  dwell.  The  large,  free  head  is  curiously  like  that 
of  a  horse ;  the  eyes  are  round  and  bright,  and  of  a  yellowish-brown 
color;  the  antennae  are  very  long,  slender  and  tapering;  the  various 
mouth  parts  are  easily  distinguished  without  the  aid  of  a  lens,  and  the 
processes  of  cutting  and  mastication  may  be  closely  observed,  as  the 
insects  will  often  sit  upon  one's  finger  and  nibble  a  leaf  or  bit  of  fruit 
in  fearless  enjoyment.  The  upper  side  of  the  pro-thorax  is  covered  by 
a  wide  collar,  which  projects  slightly  over  the  head  in  front,  and,  pos- 
teriorly, overlaps  the  bases  of  the  wings.  In  repose  the  wings  meet  on 
the  back  in  an  acute  angle,  and  are  more  or  less  convex  at  the  sides,  to 
enclose  the  body.  At  the  base  they  over-lap  in  a  wide,  flat  triangle,  the 
upper  surface  of  one  and  the  under  surface  of  the  other  being  pecu- 
liarly ridged  and  roughened  to  form  the  "  taborets,"  which  grate  together 
as  the  insect  raises  and  lowers  its  wings.  These  wing  covers  display  a 
venation  imitative  of  that  of  leaves.  The  under  wings  are  broad,  com- 
posed of  very  delicate,  finely-netted  membrane,  with  green  tips  where 
they  project  slightly  beyond  the  upper  pair.  The  legs  are  slender,  with 
the  tibiae  slightly  spiny  and  the  tarsi  ending  in  long,  sharp  claws.  The 
hind  legs  are  very  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  others.  At  the  base 
of  the  tibire  of  the  fore  legs  are  peculiar  oval  cavities  covered  with 


118  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

transparent  membrane,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  seat  of  the  sense 
of  hearing.  The  bodies  of  the  males  terminate  in  conspicuous  stylets 
or  claspers,  while  those  of  the  females  bear  a  large  sickle-shaped  or 
sword-like  ovipositor,  composed  of  two  thin  blades,  by  means  of  which 
the  eggs  are  inserted  into  bark  or  leaves,  or  are  laid  in  over-lapping 
rows  on  thin  stems  or  on  the  edges  of  leaves. 

The  true  Katydid  (Cyrtophyllus  concavus)  is  the  most  robust-looking 
species,  the  wing- covers  being  oblong  and  very  convex  on  the  sides, 
almost  meeting  below  as  well  as  on  the  back.  The  taborets  consist  of 
mica-like  plates,  with  very  strong,  peculiarly  curving  ridges.  The 
Angular- winged  Katydid  (Microcentrum  retinervisj  has  longer,  narrower 
and  less  convex  wings.  The  taborets  are  opaque,  and  the  sounds  pro- 
duced resemble  a  metallic  clicking  sound,  which  has  not  been  reduced 
by  any  imaginative  listener  to  syllables.  The  Narrow-winged  Katydid 
( Phaneroptera  curvicaudaj  is  a  smaller,  duller-green  species,  with  a  less 
noticeable  note.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  males  are  the  musi- 
cians of  the  family,  although  the  females  are  capable  of  emitting  a  faint 
response  by  a  sudden  upward  jerk  of  the  wings. 

Among  the  Grasshoppers  are  some  long,  slender,  bright-green 
species  which  have  the  front  of  the  head  produced  into  a  point.  These 
are  called  the  Cone-heads.  Xiphidium  ensifer  is  the  largest  species. 
The  males  produce  the  most  deafening,  continuous  "  whirr  "  of  any  of 
the  tribe.  The  females  have  a  long,  straight,  sword-shaped  ovipositor, 
and  in  both  sexes  the  wings  are  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  body. 
The  smaller  and  very  graceful  Orchilimums,  which  enliven  the  autumn 
days  with  their  soft  purring  notes,  belong  also  in  this  group. 

The  true  Locusts  (ACRIDID^E)  are  the  species  which  live  on  grass, 
grains  and  other  low-growing  vegetation,  and  are  in  this  country  very 
generally  called  "  grasshoppers."  In  this  group  belong  not  only  the 
various  dull-green  and  brown  species  that  are  so  numerous  every  year 
in  fields  and  pastures,  and  which  in  dry  seasons  become  very  injurious, 
but  certain  migratory  species,  which,  having  exhausted  the  food  supply 
of  the  regions  to  which  they  are  indigenous,  by  a  common  impulse  rise 
into  the  air  in  clouds  and  sweep  like  a  besom  of  destruction  over  the 
country.  They  fly  by  day  and  descend  at  night  to  feed,  often  traversing 
thousands  of  miles  before  reaching  their  limit.  These  are  the  only 
insects  which  have  been  used  to  any  great  extent  as  food,  and  this 
mainly  in  trans- Atlantic  countries,  where  the  famishing  inhabitants  of 
the  desolated  regions  were  forced  to  feed  upon  them  or  perish.  The 
Eocky  Mountain  Locust  (Caloptenus  spretus,  Thorn.)  is  the  most  im- 
portant American  species  of  migratory  locust ;  but  one  or  two  Eastern 
species  manifest  a  like  tendency,  and  during  some  years  prove  very 
destructive  over  limited  areas. 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  119 

The  Locusts  are  robust  insects,  stouter  in  body  and  legs  than  the 
Grasshopper  and  Katydids,  and  are  well  protected  by  a  firm  leathery 
integument.  The  head  is  even  larger  in  proportion  to  the  body  than  in 
the  preceding  family.  It  is  set  vertically,  in  some  species  receding 
toward  the  mouth.  The  eyes  are  large  and  broadly  elliptical  in  form ; 
antennae  short  and  rather  thick ;  the  face  is  marked  in  many  species  by 
three  distinct  ridges  ;  upper  lip  broad,  with  the  lower  edge  somewhat 
hollowed  out  just  above  the  jaws.  The  saddle-like  collar  over  the 
back  of  the  pro-thorax,  or  pro-notuin,  is  marked  by  transverse  in- 
dented lines,  and  rounds  out  over  the  insertion  of  the  wings.  Many 
locusts  have  on  the  pro-sternum,  just  under  the  chin,  a  cone-like  pro- 
jection sparsely  covered  with  short  spines  or  prickles.  The  wing 
covers  are  of  stout,  closely  netted  membrane,  with  a  projecting  ridge 
or  heavy  vein  near  the  middle  on  the  outside,  or  a  series  of  prominent 
veins  on  the  under  side.  They  are  of  a  narrowly  oblong  form  and 
slightly  overlap  in  a  straight  line  on  the  back.  The  broad  under  wings 
are  so  folded  as  to  be  entirely  covered  by  them.  The  legs  are 
all  stout,  but  the  hinder  pair,  always  much  thicker,  and  gener- 
ally much  longer  also,  than  the  others,  provide  the  leaping  power 
which  is  so  wonderful  in  these  insects.  The  outer  margins  of 
the  tibiae  are  beset  with  a  varying  number  of  pairs  of  spines, 
and  just  at  the  base  of  the  three -jointed  tarsi  are  two  pairs  of 
jointed  spurs.  At  the  base  of  the  abdomen  on  each  side  is  an 
oval  orifice  covered  with  thin  membrane,  like  those  on  the  fore  legs 
of  the  Katydids,  and,  like  them,  termed  the  ears  or  aural  sacs. 
In  the  abdomen  of  the  males  nine  segments  can  be  perceived  from  the 
under  side.  The  anal  appendages  are  a  pair  of  side  claspers  and  an 
upward  curving  ventral  plate.  In  the  abdomen  of  the  female  but 
eight  segments  can  be  distinguished,  and  the  tip  has  four  horny, 
pointed  blades,  which  can  be  brought  together  in  a  point  to  penetrate 
the  soil,  and  afterward  spread  out  to  pry  the  earth  apart  and  prepare 
a  cavity  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs,  which  are  extruded  in  a  compact 
mass,  inclosed  in  a  sort  of  glutinous  pod  or  case. 

The  stridulations  of  Locusts  are  effected  in  two  ways  by  differing 
species.  Most  of  the  larger  species  "fiddle,"  by  rubbing  the  ridged 
inner  surface  of  the  hind  thighs  over  the  prominent  mid-vein  of  the  out- 
side of  the  wing  covers.  Prof.  Gornstock,  quoting  Mr.  Scudder,  who 
has  made  most  exact  and  interesting  studies  of  the  so-called  musical 
insects,  says:  "When  about  to  stridulate  they  place  themselves  in  a 
horizontal  position,  with  the  head  a  little  elevated;  then  they  raise  both 
hind  legs  at  once,  and  grating  the  femora  against  the  outer  surface  of 
the  tegmina,  produce  notes  which  in  the  different  species  vary  in  rapid- 


120  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

ity,  number  and  duration."  Another  method  of  "fiddling"  character- 
istic of  other  species  takes  place  during  flight,  when  the  under  surface 
of  the  upper  wings  is  grated  back  and  forth  over  the  front  edge  of  the 
under  wings. 

These  insects  are  probably  all  single-brooded,  the  young  hatching 
in  the  spring  from  the  eggs  laid  the  previous  summer  and  autumn.  The 
very  young  locusts  have  much  larger  heads  in  proportion  to  their  bodies 
than  the  more  mature  forms.  There  are  five  molts  before  the  insect 
arrives  at  its  perfect  form.  At  the  third  molt  the  embryo  wings  begin 
to  appear.  These  are  in  a  reversed  position  with  the  under  wings  on 
top.  By  this  peculiarity  pupae  can  always  be  distinguished  from  the 
few  species  of  locusts  that  never  acquire  wings,  but  have  these  organs 
represented  merely  by  short  pads  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen.  Ex- 
amples of  these  wingless  species  are  found  in  the  Lubber  Grasshop- 
pers of  the  Svputh  and  West,  which  are  large,  dark,  clumsy  species, 
incapable  of  flight  or  stridulation. 

Our  largest  and  handsomest  species  is  the  American  Locust  (Acri- 
dium  americanum),  which  is  often  more  than  two  inches  in  length,  with 
a  golden  brown  stripe  down  the  back  and  beautifully  mottled  wings  ; 
the  hind  shanks  are  bright  red,  beset  with  spines,  which  are  ivory-white 
tipped  with  black.  There  are  red  markings  also  on  the  head,  thorax 
and  edges  of  the  wings,  and  the  fore  and  middle  legs  are  also  a  paler 
shade  of  the  same  color.  The  most  common  and  generally  distributed 
species  is  the  Eed-legged  Locust  (Caloptenus  femur-rubrum  DeG.).  This 
is  scarcely  more  than  one-third  the  size  of  the  first-named  species,  is  of 
a  pale,  greenish-brown  with  dull-red  hind  legs.  It  often  multiplies  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  do  great  injury  to  growing  grain. 

The  Eocky  Mountain  Locust,  or  Western  Migratory  Locust  (Calop- 
tenus spretus,  Thomas),  is  only  to  be  distinguished  from  the  familiar  red- 
legged  species  by  the  greater  length  of  its  wing-covers  and  wings. 
Concerning  the  destructiveness  of  this  species  at  irregular  periods  in 
the  States  and  territories  west  of  the  Mississippi  river,  Dr.  Eiley,  who 
has  devoted  much  time  and  labor  to  the  study  of  this  insect,  and  to 
devising  methods  for  keeping  it  in  check,  writes :  "  It  was  so  very 
destructive  in  the  Northwestern  States  and  Territories  from  1873  to 
1877  that  it  may  truly  be  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
the  business  crises  which  characterized  that  period.  So  wide-spread  and 
disastrous  were  the  results  of  its  work  that  Congress  provided  for  a  com- 
mission to  investigate  it.  *  *  *  No  one  who  has  not  witnessed  the 
ravaging  power  of  locusts  can  fully  conceive  of  or  appreciate  it.  The 
organization  and  habit  of  the  typical  locust  admirably  fit  it  for  raven- 
ous work.  Muscular,  gregarious,  with  powerful  jaws,  and  ample  diges- 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  121 

live  and  reproductive  systems ;  strong  of  wing  and  assisted  in  flight  by 
numerous  buoyant  air  sacs — all  these  traits  conspire  to  make  it  the  ter- 
rible engine  of  destruction  which  history  shows  it  to  have  been.  In- 
significant individually,  but  mighty  collectively,  locusts  fall  upon  a 
country  like  a  plague  or  blight." 

The  winged  locusts  do  not  generally  appear  in  swarms  until  late  in 
summer,  when,  after  devouring  all  sorts  of  vegetation,  the  females  fill 
the  ground  with  their  eggs  and  then  die. 

The  young  locusts,  which  hatch  in  the  spring,  are  at  hand  to  take 
the  next  crop,  and  unless  vigorous  and  combined  effort  is  made  to  sub- 
due them,  by  repeated  plowings,  they  take  all  the  early  vegetation  of 
the  second  year.  Those  that  survive  to  attain  their  wings  return  in 
small  swarms  to  their  native  breeding  places. 

The  species  of  (Edipoda  often  have  the  hind  wings  brightly  colored 
and  prettily  banded  or  bordered.  The  small  species,  termed  Grouse 
Locusts,  genus  Tettix,  are  characterized  by  the  prolongation  of  the  col- 
lar backward  so  as  to  almost  entirely  cover  the  top  of  the  abdomen  and 
taking  the  place  of  the  upper  wings,  which,  being  useless,  are  reduced 
to  very  small  pads.  In  these  insects  the  hind  legs,  though  not  long, 
are  very  stout.  They  are  of  dull  black  or  dark  colors,  and  are  usually 
found  along  water-courses  or  in  other  damp  places.  None  of  the 
species  are  especially  injurious. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

Order  ORTHOPTERA.      Sections  AMBULATORIA,  RAPTORIA, 

and  CURSORIA. 

WALKING    STICKS,  MANTES  AND   COCKROACHES. 

The  "  Walking  sticks,"  "  Walking  leaves,"  and  so  forth,  included  in 
the  family  PHASMIDJE,  are  mainly  tropical  species,  exhibiting  in  their 
forms  the  most  exact  and  remarkable  resemblances  to  twigs  and  leaves 
that  have  been  observed  in  nature.  These  imitations  of  inanimate  ob- 
jects are  the  sole  reliance  of  these  insects  for  safety,  as  they  have  no 
means  of  defense  agianst  their  enemies,  and  their  movements  are  too 
sluggish  to  permit  them  to  escape.  The  Walking  sticks,  of  which  a 
few  species  occur  in  the  United  States,  are  long,  slender  and  cylindri- 
cal in  form,  with  long  legs,  the  middle  pair  having  the  thighs  somewhat 
thickened.  When  at  rest  the  front  legs  are  pressed  close  together  and 


122  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

stuck  straight  out  in  front  of  the  head,  with  the  long  thread-like  anten- 
nae between  them,  and  when  in  this  position  the  eye  may  rest  for  some 
time  upon  them  without  recognizing  their  difference  from  the  twigs  and 
leaf-stalks  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  They  also  have  a  chameleon- 
like  power  of  changing  their  colors  to  assimilate  with  those  of  the 
plant  or  tree  which  they  inhabit.  They  never  acquire  even  the  rudi- 
ments of  wings,  and  the  principal  difference  between  the  sexes  is  that 
the  females  are  somewhat  larger  and  stouter  than  the  males.  The 
former  lay  their  eggs  in  the  autumn,  dropping  them  carelessly  to  the 
ground.  They  are  about  the  size,  shape  and  color  of  spinach  seed,  and 
remain  unhatched  until  late  the  following  spring,  or  for  two  years.  The 
young,  which  are  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long  when  hatched,  are 
precise  miniatures  of  the  mature  insects,  except  that  they  are  more 
uniformly  green  in  color.  They  feed  at  first  on  grass  and  other  low- 
growing  vegetation,  but  soon  ascend  the  nearest  trees,  in  which  they 
find  a  home  adapted  to  all  their  needs.  Diapheromera  femorata  is  the 
only  common  northern  species.  This  is,  when  full  grown,  from  three 
to  four  inches  long,  exclusive  of  the  front  legs,  with  a  diameter  varying 
from  one-eighth  to  one-fifth  inch.  It  seldom  appears  in  any  locality  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  be  accounted  injurious,  but  there  are  exceptions 
to  this  rule,  as,  for  example,  in  certain  parts  of  the  middle  Atlantic 
states,  where  during  one  or  two  seasons  some  years  ago  it  almost  de- 
foliated the  forest  trees. 

The  second  section — Graspers  (RAPT  ORI  A) — contains  the  family 
MANTID^E.  The  singular  forms  and  attitudes  of  these  insects  have  sug- 
gested for  them  various  expressive  popular  names,  such  as  "  Devil's 
riding-horses,"  "Rear-horses,"  "Intelligence  bugs,"  "Sooth-sajers," 
"Praying  nuns"  and  the  like.  The  English  names  "Camel-cricket"  or 
"Praying  mantis"  are  more  appropriate,  arid  worthy  of  general  adoption. 
These  insects  have  always  been  the  objects  of  superstitious  regard,  not 
only  by  the  ignorant  and  uncivilized  natives  of  tropical  regions,  where 
their  species  are  most  numerous,  but  even  by  cultured,  but  too  imagi- 
native Europeans.  It  was  formerly  believed  that  they  could  foretell 
good  and  evil  fortunes,  and  that  the  person  on  whom  one  alighted  was 
especially  favored  of  the  gods,  and  they  still  receive  divine  honors 
from  many  savage  tribes.  They  have  indeed  a  wickedly-wise  and  weird 
look,  to  which  their  rapacious  and  cruel  habits  fully  correspond.  They 
are  among  the  fiercest  of  cannibals,  greedily  devouring  all  kinds  of  soft- 
bodied  insects,  which  they  seize  and  hold  between  their  spiny  front  legs 
until  slowly  masticated.  They  do  not  hesitate  to  attack  each  other, 
and  when  two  chance  to  meet  a  battle  is  the  almost  invariable  result- 
The  females  are  stronger  and  more  savage  than  the  males,  and  after 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  123 

pairing  the  former  generally  dines  upon  her  partner.  These  insects 
are  of  large  size — two  inches  or  more  in  length.  The  head  is  triangular, 
free,  very  wide  at  the  top,  with  large,  round,  singularly  expressive  eyes  ; 
antennae  thread-like  and  not  very  long ;  mouth  at  the  apex  of  the  in- 
verted triangle;  jaws  strong,  though  small.  The  thoracic  joints  are 
cylindrical  and  elongated,  and  move  freely  upon  each  other;  the  fore 
legs  (graspers)  are  not  used  for  walking,  but  are  folded  and  held  up  in 
a  position  suggesting  the  attitude  of  prayer,  though  it  is  really  one  of 
menace.  The  hind  body  is  oval  or  oblong,  somewhat  flattened,  and  in 
the  male  completely  covered  by  the  folded  ample  wings,  and  the  over- 
lapping wing  covers.  The  female  has  much  shorter  wings  and  wing 
covers,  and  is  incapable  of  flight.  The  sexes  differ  also  in  color,  the 
male  being  dull-brown  while  the  female  is  usually  some  shade  of  green. 
This  description  applies  to  the  only  species  commonly  met  with  in  the 
United  States  below  the  thirty-ninth  parallel,  namely,  Phasmomentis 
Carolina.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  compact  oblong  mass,  which  closely 
resembles  a  fossil  called  a  "trilobite."  It  is  attached  by  its  flat  surface 
to  fence-posts,  the  wood  of  trellises  and  the  stems  of  shrubbery.  These 
egg  masses  should  never  be  destroyed,  as  the  Mantes  are  very  useful 
in  clearing  gardens  and  vineyards  of  plant-feeding  pests. 

The  section  CURSOR! A,  family  BLATID^E,  is  represented  by  the 
disgusting  and  omnivorous  household  pests,  the  Cockroaches.  These 
insects  have  no  attractions  of  form  or  color,  and  have  a  disagreeable 
odor  which  they  communicate  to  the  closets  and  rooms  infested,  while 
their  swift  motions  and  the  deftness  with  which  they  disappear  into 
almost  invisible  cracks  and  crevices  is  most  exasperating  to  their  pur- 
suer. There  is  nothing  to  be  said  in  their  favor,  except  that  they  prey 
upon  the  bed-bug,  an  instance  in  which  the  "cure  is  as  bad  as  the  dis- 
ease." They  have  received  various  common  names,  such  as  "  black 
beetles "  and  "  croton  bugs,"  but  are  quite  generally  recognized  as 
"roaches"  or  "cockroaches."  They  are  all  nocturnal  in  their  habits 
and  very  partial  to  warmth  and  moisture,  which  accounts  for  their 
abundance  about  kitchen  sinks  and  in  the  holds  and  pantries  of  ships, 
steamboats  and  similar  situations.  They  are  of  very  flat,  oblong  form, 
with  the  head  horizontal  and  almost  concealed  by  the  projecting  margin 
of  the  collar.  The  antennse  are  long  and  slender;  the  legs  spiny  and 
nearly  equally  developed ;  the  wing-covers  are  usually  present,  but  some- 
times short,  and  the  under  wings  often  entirely  wanting.  The  females 
lay  all  their  eggs  in  one  mass,  enclosed  in  a  bean-shaped  sack,  which  is 
often  carried  about  for  some  time  before  being  dropped.  Dr.  Eiley  has 
observed  that  the  females  of  some  species  remain  with  and  protect 
their  young.  The  latter  are  at  first  pure  white,  and  at  every  molt  the 


124  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

insects  revert  more  or  less  to  this  color,  though  soon  becoming  of  the 
shade  of  brown  which  characterizes  them. 

Our  native  species  seldom  give  us  much  annoyance.  The  males 
occasionally  fly  into  lighted  rooms  at  night,  but  the  females  are  usually 
found  around  rotten  stumps  and  under  bark  of  dead  trees.  The  Light 
brown  cockroach  fPlatamodes  Pennsylvania}  is  the  largest  species.  It 
measures  about  an  inch  in  length,  has  very  delicate  wings,  and  is  of  a 
light  brown  color.  A  smaller  species  of  a  very  dark  brown  or  black 
color,  but  with  lighter  margins,  is  also  quite  common.  This  is  Ectobia  fla- 
vocincta.  The  most  destructive  and  annoying  cockroaches  are  found 
among  the  introduced  species.  These  are  especially,  the  large,  very 
dark  brown  or  black  Oriental  cockroach  (Periplancta  orientalis,  Linn.),  a 
species  which  is  supposed  to  be  native  in  eastern  Asia,  but  which  now 
occurs  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  about  one  inch  long  and 
one-third  of  an  inch  wide,  very  flat,  so  that  it  is  able  to  creep  into  the 
smallest  crack.  The  wing  covers  in  the  male  extend  over  little  more  than 
one-half  of  the  abdomen,  and  in  the  female  are  still  more  rudimentary 
These  insects  are  very  long-lived,  and  it  is  said  require  several  years 
to  complete  their  transformations.  The  smaller,  German  cockroach, 
also  called  the  "Croton  bug"  (Eotobia  germanicaj,  has  become  very 
troublesome  in  the  eastern  cities,  and  from  its  fondness  for  wheat  bread 
and  dough,  is  the  especial  pest  of  bakeries  and  bread  boxes.  This 
species  has  fully  developed  wings,  and  is  of  a  light  brown  color,  with 
two  dark  stripes  on  the  pro-thorax. 

The  free  use  of  pyrethrum  powder  will  preserve  cloth-bound  books 
and  similar  property  from  the  attacks  of  these  insects,  and  if  used 
freely  in  kitchens  and  other  places  which  they  frequent,  will  render 
them  helpless,  so  that  they  may  be  easily  swept  up  and^burned.  Pow- 
dered borax  mixed  with  sugar  will  also  kill  them. 


OUTLINES  OF  ENTOMOLOGY.  125 


CHAPTER     XXXI. 
Order  VII.     NEUROPTERA, 

Fig.  47. 


Dragon-fly  (Plathemis  tri-maculata) . 

The  insects  here  considered  under  the  old  Order  NEUROPTERA 
are  now  separated  into  from  two  to  five  minor  Orders,  according  to  the 
importance  attached  by  authors  to  the  peculiar  development  of  certain 
organs,  and,  more  especially,  with  regard  to  the  different  methods  of 
transformation  which  obtain  among  them.  As  very  few  of  these  insects 
are  of  economic  importance,  however,  and  as  all  the  more  conspicuous 
forms  agree  in  general  wing  structure,  and  in  the  possession  of  biting 
mouth  parts  (except  in  one  group,  where  these  organs  are  entirely  un- 
developed), it  will  be  more  convenient  to  discuss  them  as  members  of  a 
single  primary  group. 

In  these  insects  the  body  wall  is  soft  and  flexible,  and  there  is  but 
little  consolidation  of  segments  in  any  part.  The  head  is  usually  rather 
large  and  free;  antennae  always  filiform  or  bristle-like,  but  sometimes 
very  short ;  eyes,  except  in  a  few  of  the  lowliest  forms,  conspicuous, 
and  in  many  species  occupying  the  entire  sides  of  the  head ;  mouth 
parts,  especially  the  outer  jaws  and  lips,  peculiarly  large  and  strong ; 
thoracic  joints  more  equally  developed  than  in  most  species  of  preced- 
ing orders.  The  two  pairs  of  wings  are  composed  of  delicate,  trans- 
parent membrane,  closely  netted  with  fine  veins,  with  strong  supporting 
ribs  on  the  anterior  margin;  legs,  as  a  rule,  rather  small  and  weak; 
abdomen  slender,  oblong  or  lanceolate,  in  some  cases  terminated  by  a 
pair  of  curved  forceps  or  two  or  three  long,  bristle-like  tails. 

In  a  portion  of  these  insects  the  metamorphosis  is  complete,  the 
pupal  stage  of  life  being  one  of  quiescence  and  rest ;  while  in  the 
remainder  of  the  Neuroptera  the  pupae  are  active  and  voracious  and 


126  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

molt  a  number  of  times,  although  they  differ  considerably  in  form  from 
the  larvae.  Even  the  winged  insects  of  a  few  species  molt  once  or 
twice,  a  habit  that  has  no  parallel  in  the  life  history  of  the  more  highly 
organized  forms.  The  great  majority  of  the  species  are  aquatic,  and 
feed  upon  insects  and  other  small  water  animals.  In  their  relation  to 
man  they  are,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  small  groups,  either  neutral 
or  beneficial.  The  aquatic  species  form  a  large  part  of  the  food  of 
fishes,  and  the  few  terrestrial  species  mostly  prey  on  small  pests  of  the 
orchard  and  garden. 

Following  the  idea  of  Prof.  Comstock.  it  will  be  convenient  to 
separate  the  Nerve- winged  insects  into  two  sections,  NEUROPTERA, 
proper,  and  PSEUDONEUROPTERA.  The  insects  included  in 
the  first  section  undergo  complete  metamorphosis,  and  are  therefore 
ranked  by  many  authors  higher  than  Hemiptera  or  Orthoptera,  although 
their  structural  peculiarities  would  not  place  them  in  advance  of  the 
latter.  The  principal  families  of  Neuroptera,  proper,  are  the  Oaddice 
flies  (PHRYGANID^E),  Ant  lions  and  Lace  wings  (HEMEROBIAD^E)  and 
the  Hellgrammite  flies  and  others  (SCIALIDJE).  In  the  Pseudoneu- 
roptera  are  grouped  a  large  number  of  more  or  less  diverse  families, 
including  some  wingless  and  degraded  parasitic  forms.  The  most 
interesting  and  conspicuous  species  are  found  in  the  families  of  the 
Dragon-flies  (LIBELLULID^E),  the  May -flies  (EPHEMERID^E),  the  Stone- 
flies  (PERLID^:),  and  the  White  ants  (TERMITID^E).  Here  also  be- 
long the  little  creatures  often  seen  in  old  or  long  unopened  books, 
called  book-lice  (PsooiD^),  and  the  peculiar  parasites  referred  to  in  a 
previous  chapter,  the  true  Bird-lice  (MALOPHAGIDJE). 

The  Oaddice  fiies  closely  resemble  moths  in  their  general  outline? 
but  the  wings  are  of  more  delicate  texture  and  rather  sparsely  covered 
with  hairs  instead  of  scales.  The  antenn*  also  are  like  those  of  moths, 
being  long  and  thread-like,  but  there  is  no  coiled  tongue,  and  the  other 
mouth  parts  are  differently  developed.  The  female  flies  lay  their  eggs 
upon  water  plants,  and  the  aquatic  larvae  attract  much  attention  on 
account  of  the  sigular  and  ingenious  little  cases  which  they  construct 
for  the  protection  of  their  soft  bodies.  These  are  made  of  v  silk,  and  to 
the  outside  are  attached  small  pebbles,  coarse  sand,  or  bits  of  sticks 
or  leaves,  giving  them  very  peculiar  and  often  beautiful  forms.  Some 
species  make  their  cases  entirely  of  silk,  and  of  a  very  elongated  cone 
shape.  The  thoracic  legs  are  long  and  strong,  and  when  moving  from 
place  to  place,  the  case  is  dragged  along  over  the*  hinder  end  of  the 
body,  but  when  resting  or  molting  the  larva  retires  within  it  and  closes 
the  opening  by  a  little  door  or  grating,  which  admits  the  water  neces- 
sary to  respiration,  but  excludes  enemies.  These  case-bearing  larvae 
may  be  found  along  the  shores  of  lakes  and  in  the  beds  of  shallow 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  127 

streams.  They  feed  upon  small  water  insects  and  vegetation.  Prof. 
Comstock  describes  a  species  that  makes  a  very  simple  case  under 
stones  in  rapid  streams,  but  excites  much  admiration  by  its  ingenuity 
in  fishing,  catching  its  prey  by  means  of  a  seine-like  web  stretched  be- 
tween two  stones. 

The  Ant-lions  (genus  Myrmeleon)  are  very  delicate  and  beautiful 
flies,  with  slender  bodies  and  oblong,  lace-like  wings,  sometimes  plain, 
sometimes  ornamented  with  black  dots  (see  lower  figure  in  plate). 
They  have  a  graceful  flight,  and  are  occasionally  attracted  into  our 
lamp  lighted  rooms  at  night.  The  larvae  are  ugly  and  ferocious  look- 
ing. The  body  is  rough  and  broad-oval  in  shape,  and  the  flattened 
head  is  provided  with  a  proportionately  enormous  pair  of  pincer-like 
mandibles,  adapted  for  seizing  and  holding  its  victims  while  they  are 
pierced  and  comminuted  by  the  maxillae.  These  larvae  dig  funnel- 
shaped  or  saucer-shaped  pits  in  sandy  soil,  with  a  straight  shaft  in  the 
center  in  which  they  hide,  supporting  themselves  with  the  tips  of  the 
gaping  jaws  just  above  the  edge,  ready  to  close  with  lightning-like 
rapidity  on  any  unlucky  ant  or  other  insect  that  carelessly  strays  over 
the  edge  of  the  pit-falls  and  slides  into  th'e  trap  at  the  bottom.  If  the 
insect  obtains  its  footing  and  attempts  to  crawl  up  the  steep  sides  it 
is  brought  down  with  showers  of  sand  thrown  upon  it  by  the  enraged 
and  disappointed  ant-lion,  and  it  is  but  very  raiely  that  it  escapes. 
These  larvae  are  called  "doodle  bugs"  in  some  parts  of  the  country, 
and  are  most  commonly  found  on  the  margins  of  streams  and  in  shel- 
tered ravines.  [Fig.  48.] 

The  Lace-wing  flies  are  another  small 
group  of  terrestrial  Neuroptera.  They 
are  pretty  but  fragile  and  ill-odored  flies, 

Lace- wing  fly   (Chrysopa)   and  eggi  on 

etaiks,  after  Riiey.  Of  a  pale  green  or  rosy  hue,  the  wings  re 

fleeting  prismatic  colors.  The  antennae  are  thread-like  and  nearly  as 
long  as  the  body,  and  the  round  eyes  gleam  like  jewels.  The  oval  pale 
green  eggs  arc  laid  in  clusters,  each  attached  to  the  top  of  a  slender 
silken  stalk.  This  is  supposed  to  be  a  precautionary  instinct  of  the 
parent  fly  to  preserve  them  from  the  rapacity  of  the  larva  that  hatches 
first.  The  larvae  are  called  "Aphis-lions"  from  the  small  insects  which 
are  their  more  especial  prey.  They  are  of  depressed  oval  form  with 
pincer-like  jaws  and  long,  rather  sprawling  legs.  They  render  valuable 
aid  to  the  farmer  and  horticulturist  in  clearing  his  trees  and  other 
plants  of  plant  lice,  bark  lice  and  similar  small  pests.  When  full  grown 
they  enclose  themselves  in  round  white  cocoons,  which  are  closed  on 
top  by  a  lid  that  is  easily  pushed  up  when  the  fly  is  ready  to  emerge. 

E— 9 


128  OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  Hellgrammite  fly  and  the  other,  much  smaller,  species  of,  the 
family  SCIALIDJE  have  carnivorous  larvae  that  live  under  stones  in  run- 
ning water.  The  large  fly  above  named  (Corydalis  cornutusj  is  the 
only  conspicuous  member  of  the  group.  This  is  one  of  the  largest,  if 
not  the  very  largest,  insect  in  the  Order — the  length  being  between 
two  and  three  inches,  with  a  wing  expanse  of  about  five  inches.  It  is 
quite  common  in  most  sections  of  the  United  States.  The  body  is 
soft,  with  the  pro-thoracic  joint  rather  narrow,  forming  a  sort  of  neck 
to  which  the  much  broader  and  rather  square  head  is  closely  joined. 
The  eyes  are  rather  small  and  wide  apart,  and  the  stout,  many-jointed 
antennae  taper  to  a  point.  In  the  female  the  jaws  are  broad,  curved 
and  notched  at  the  extremity,  but  in  the  male  these  are  modified  into 
a  pair  of  long,  cylindrical  tapering  tusks,  with  which  he  can  clasp  the 
neck  of  the  female.  The  wings  are  quite  broad,  of  rather  thick  mem- 
brane, with  a  fine  net-work  of  veins,  and  stippled  all  over  with  whitish 
dots.  The  general  color  of  the  insect  is  a  dull,  ash  gray.  The  female 
lays  her  eggs  on  sticks  or  leaves  or  stones  that  overhang  the  water, 
protecting  and  surrounding  them  by  a  white  substance  that  gives  the 
entire  mass  the  appearance  of  a  splash  of  whitewash.  The  larvae,  upon 
hatching,  drop  into  the  water.  They  are  formidable- looking  creatures 
when  full  grown.  The  head  is  broad  and  almost  square,  with  strong 
jaws  and  other  mouth  parts.  The  thoracic  joints,  of  which  the  first 
is  longest,  are  quite  elegantly  sculptured.  The  feet  terminate  in  a  pair 
of  claws.  The  sides  of  the  hind  body  are  furnished  on  each  joint 
with  spiny,  oar-like  processes  and  feathery  tufts  for  gills,  and  there 
are  also  spiracles  through  which  air  can  be  breathed.  They  are 
from  two  to  two  and  a  half  inches  long  by  nearly  one-half  inch  in 
diameter.  They  are  highly  esteemed  for  bait  by  fishermen,  by  whom 
they  are  termed  "crawlers,"  "dobson,"  etc.  It  is  said  that  they  are 
nearly  three  years  in  completing  their  growth,  and  that  the  transfor- 
mations are  rapid  and  take  place  in  cells  under  stones  or  drift-wood  on 
or  near  the  banks  of  the  stream. 

The  other  insects  of  this  group  (genera  Chauliodes  and  SialisJ 
bear  a  close  general  resemblance  to  Corydalis  m  structure  and  habit, 
but  are  very  much  smaller  and  do  not  attract  much  popular  attention. 

Among  the  PSEUDONEUROPTERA  the  most  conspicuous  and 
beautiful  insects  are  the  Dragon  flies  or  Mosquito-hawks  (  LIBELLU- 
LID^:).  These  are  also  called  "  Darning  needles,"  and  have  been  made 
objects  of  terror  to  children  by  the  tradition  that  they  are  constantly 
watching  for  an  opportunity  to  u  sew  up  their  ears,?f  or  do  them  some 
other  bodily  harm.  In  other  parts  of  the  country  they  are  termed 
"  Snake  doctors,"  and  are  said  to  hover  over  the  bodies  of  dead  reptiles 


OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  129 

and  "  bring  them  to  life."  The  probable  foundation  for  the  latter 
superstition  is  that  they  are  in  pursuit  of  the  flies  that  have  been  at- 
tracted by  the  odor  of  the  carrion.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  they  are 
absolutely  incapable  of  injuring  any  human  being,  and  never  show 
even  the  disposition  to  do  so.  Their  motions  are  very  graceful,  and 
their  habits  are  in  the  highest  degree  interesting.  They  are  most 
numerous  in  the  neighborhood  of  standing  water,  and  dart  back  and 
forth  through  the  clouds  of  mosquites  and  small  gnats,  seizing  and 
devouring  them  in  great  numbers. 

Their  appearance  is  familiar  to  every  one.  The  body  is  long  and 
slender,  tapering  backward,  and  often  of  brilliant  metallic  colors, 
terminating  in  more  or  less  conspicuous  claspers  or  other  appendages. 
The  sides  of  the  head  are  nearly  covered  by  the  large  eyes  ;  the  anten- 
nae are  very  short  and  bristle-tipped;  the  jaws  are  small  but  strong,  and 
the  parts  corresponding  to  the  lips  of  larger  animals  are  both  very 
large  and  close  completely  over  the  other  mouth  parts. 

The  wings  are  long,  narrow  and  stiff,  the  hinder  pair  a  little  larger 
than  the  others.  They  are  composed  of  transparent,  closely-netted 
membrane,  in  many  species  crossed  by  broad  dark  bands  or  ornamented 
with  spots  and  cloudings  of  crimson  or  orange.  The  legs  are  rather  soft 
and  weak,  and  are  useful  chiefly  as  supports  to  the  body  when  the  insect 
alights.  The  females  drop  their  eggs  in  masses,  embedded  in  a  jelly- 
like  substance,  into  the  water,  or  attach  them  to  the  submerged  stems 
of  aquatic  plants.  The  larvae  are  carnivorous,  and  somewhat  resemble 
the  perfect  insect  in  form,  but  breathe  through  leaf-like  gills  at  the 
tip  or  along  the  sides  of  the  body.  In  this  age  the  labium  (lower  lip) 
shows  a  still  more  remarkable  form  than  in  the  mature  insect;  it  is  very 
broad  and  hinged  in  the  middle,  and  when  the  insect  is  at  rest  folds  up 
over  the  face  like  a  mask.  The  anterior  edge  is  furnished  with  a  pair 
of  sharp  hooks,  and  the  apparatus  can  be  extended  to  a  great  length  in 
reaching  after  the  prey,  which  is  seized  by  the  hooks  and  carried  back 
to  the  jaws  for  mastication.  The  pupae,  when  full  grown,  crawl  up  the 
stems  of  water  plants,  to  which  they  cling  by  their  legs,  while  the  fly 
emerges  through  a  slit  on  the  back. 

The  May  flies  or  Lake  flies  (Ephemera),  of  which  there  are  many 
species,  often  arise  in  clouds  at  night  from  the  shores  of  lakes  or 
rivers,  and  in  the  morning  the  ground,  especially  around  lamp-posts 
and  under  lighted  windows,  will  be  covered  with  their  dead  bodies. 
These  insects  are-very  soft-bodied  and  frail,  and,  in  the  perfect  state, 
live  but  a  few  hours— just  long  enough  to  pair  and  lay  their  eggs.  The 
head  is  small,  the  greater  part  of  its  surface  being  occupied  by  the 
eyes  ;  the  antennae  are  very  short  and  fine.  The  fore  wings  are  broad 


130  OUTLINES   OF   ENTOMOLOGY. 

somewhat  triangular  in  shape,  while  the  hind  wings  are  scarcely  one- 
fourth  their  size,  and  nearly  circular.  The  legs  are  slender,  the  front 
pair  longer  than  the  others.  The  abdomen  tapers  backward,  and  ends 
in  two  or  three  bristle-like  appendages  that  are  twice  or  three  times 
the  length  of  the  body.  The  eggs  are  simply  dropped  into  the  water 
in  a  mass.  The  young  feed  upon  minute  aquatic  vegetation  or  prey 
upon  microscopic  animals.  Some  species,  whose  habits  have  been 
studied  in  aquaria,  have  been  observed  to  molt  more  than  twenty 
times,  and  to  require  from  one  to  three  years  in  which  to  complete 
their  growth.  Among  other  anomalous  characters  found  in  these  lar- 
vae are  a  pair  of  large  tracheal  gills  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the 
head.  Another  singular  phenomenon  occurs  in  these  insects — namely,, 
the  molting  of  the  perfect  insect.  The  first  winged  form  is  called  the 
sub-imago.  This  rises  into  the  air,  but  after  a  short  flight  settles  upon 
some  object  and  rapidly  sheds  its  skin,  wings,  legs,  caudal  bristles  and 
all,  leaving  behind  it  the  filmy  integument  of  the  sub-imago. 

The  Stone  flies  (Perlidce),  so  called  because  the  young  are  com- 
monly found  under  stones  in  running  water,  are  much  larger  than  the 
May  flies,  and  resemble,  in  general  form  and  structure  of  the  body 
and  wings,  the  Hellgrammite  fly,  although  none  of  the  species  are  so 
large  as  the  latter.  The  hind  wings  are  also  proportionately  much 
broader,  and  have  few  cross-veins.  Some  very  minute  species  appear 
very  early  in  the  spring,  and  are  called  Snow  flies,  being  often  coinci- 
dent with  late  snows. 

The  Termites  or  white  ants  abound  chiefly  in  tropical  regions, 
where  they  are  excessively  destructive  and  difficult  to  contend  with. 
A  few  species  also  occur  in  temperate  climates,  and  one,  Termes  flavipes, 
is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  often  does  much  damage 
to  the  sills  of  buildings  and  wooden  sidewalks,  to  fence  posts  and 
similar  property.  In  the  Southern  States  it  also  occasionally  attacks 
the  roots  and  trunks  of  orange  trees,  and  the  roots  of  Pampas  grass. 
It  feeds,  however,  by  preference  upon  dead  wood,  and  works  so  in- 
sidiously that  its  presence  is  not  even  suspected  until  the  walls  of  a 
building  give  way,  or  an  article  of  furniture  drops  in  pieces  upon  being 
moved.  Like  the  true  ants,  the  Termites  are  social  insects,  and  live  in 
exceedingly  populous  colonies.  In  the  tropics  many  species  are  mound- 
builders,  erecting  conical  structures  of  earth  or  wood  fiber,  held  in 
place  with  cement,  that  are  from  eight  to  ten  feet  high.  All  the  more 
northern  species  are  more  secluded  in  their  habits,  avoiding  the  light 
and  excavating  chambers  deep  in  the  earth  or  in  the  centers  of  the 
largest  stumps.  From  these,  under-ground  passages  and  tunnels  ex- 
tend for  hundreds  of  feet  in  every  direction.  They  are  all  small  insects 


OUTLINES    OF   ENTOMOLOGY.  131 

probably  seldom  exceeding  one-half  inch  in  length,  even  in  the  equa- 
torial regions,  while  our  own  species  are  only  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch 
long.  In  this  matter  of  size,  however,  one  individual  in  each  colony  is 
an  exception.  This  is  the  "queen"  or  fertile  female,  whose  abdomen 
becomes  go  enormously  distended  with  eggs,  that  it  is  from  two  to  six 
or  eight  inches  in  length  and  of  a  proportionate  thickness.  The  aver- 
age size  of  the  queen  of  Termes  flavipes  is  from  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  inches.  These  insects  are  of  a  dingy  white  color.  The  head,  with 
which  the  excavating  is  done,  is  large  and  horny  and  very  nearly 
square  in  shape,  except  in  the  "soldiers,"  in  which  it  is  oblong,  and  pro- 
vided with  long,  sharp-pointed  mandibles.  The  thoracic  segments  are 
constricted  anteriorly,  but  broaden  gradually  toward  the  oval  abdomen, 
which  has  the  surface  microscopically  hairy.  The  wings  are  possessed 
only  by  the  perfect  males  and  females,  and  by  these  for  a  few  hours 
only;  they  are  long  and  narrow,  with  forked  but  not  netted  venation. 
The  legs  are  quite  long  and  stout. 

As  in  the  colonies  of  the  true  ants,  the  Termites  are  divided  into 
castes,  each  nest  containg  not  only  males,  females  and  neuters,  but  the 
latter  are  divided  into  "  workers  "  and  "  soldiers,"  the  sole  duty  of  the 
latter  being  the  defense  of  the  colony,  while  the  workers  perform  all 
the  labors  of  sapping  and  mining,  building  and  provisioning  the  differ- 
ent cells,  taking  care  of  the  helpless  queen  and  feeding  the  young. 
Moreover,  the  sexed  individuals  are  of  two  sorts,  "  kings  "  and  "  queens" 
of  the  first  rank,  which,  upon  reaching  maturity,  acquire  wings  and 
make  an  excursion  into  the  upper  world  of  light  and  air  before  settling 
down  to  their  one  duty  of  providing  for  the  continuance  of  the  colony; 
and  in  addition  to  these,  what  are  termed  "  supplemental  "  kings  and 
queens,  which  never  become  winged,  and  whose  function  is  to  preserve 
the  colony  from  extermination  in  case,  after  swarming,  the  workers 
fail  to  secure  a  genuinely  royal  pair. 

The  internal  economy  of  Termes'  nests  has  been  found  very  diffi- 
cult to  investigate,  but  so  far  as  it  has  been  observed,  corresponds 
closely  to  that  of  the  ants.  The  eggs,  as  fast  as  they  are  laid,  are  car- 
ried out  by  the  workers  and  placed  in  other  apartments,  and  the 
young,  which  are  active  but  incapable  of  taking  care  of  themselves, 
are  fed  upon  comminuted  wood  or  fungi.  In  due  time  the  males  and 
females  acquire  wings  and  make  their  way  out  of  the  nest,  but  after 
flying  or  being  wafted  by  the  wind  to  greater  or  less  distances,  fall  to 
the  ground  and  shed  their  wings.  Each  male  then  seizes  a  female  by 
his  mandibles,  and  such  of  the  couples  as  escape  the  greediness  of 
birds  and  carnivorous  insects  are,  it  is  said,  taken  in  charge  by  workers 

which  are  on  the  watch  for  them,  and  either  taken  to  old  colonies  in 

7 


132  OUTLINES   OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 

need  of  new  queens  and  kings,  or  a  new  colony  is  founded  for  them  to 
people.  They  are  placed  in  the  strongest  and  most  healthful  chambers 
and  receive  every  attention,  but  are  not  even  permitted  to  wander 
about  the  nest,  which  the  queen  would  indeed  be  incapable  of  doing  in 
a  very  short  time.  She  is  supposed  to  live  for  several  years,  and  during 
this  period  lays  innumerable  eggs.  The  swarming  of  the  young  males  and 
females  in  such  vast  numbers  is  understood  to  be  a  provision  for  cross- 
fertilization,  as  the  swarming  from  a  number  of  colonies  takes  place  at 
once,  and  the  chances  are  largely  in  favor  of  males  and  females  from 
different  colonies  coming  together.  In  the  event  of  the  death  of  the 
old  queen,  and  the  failure  to  secure  a  young  one  after  her  aerial  excur- 
sion, a  wingless  "  supplemental "  pair  are  brought  into  the  royal  apart- 
ments and  the  colony  is  preserved  by  means  of  their  progeny,  although 
the  latter  are  not  nearly  so  numerous  as  those  of  the  true  queen. 

THE  END. 


XltTIDEIX 


PAGE 

Acanthilnae 104 

Acrididfe 118 

Aculeata 28 

Adephaga 53 

^Egeriadse 85 

Animals,  classification  of 4 

Andrenidae 31 

Annelida  4 

Ants 41 

Ant-lion 127 

Anthophila 29 

Aphididse 107 

Aphodiidae 62 

Apple  curculio 72 

Apple  maggot 97 

Apple-tree  bark- louse 110 

Argynnis 81 

Army  worm 87 

Asilidas 94 

Asterias  butterfly 79 

Attalabidrc 72 

Back  swimmers 105 

Bald-faced  hornet 38 

Bark  beetles 72 

Bed-bug 104 

Bed-bug  hunter 104 


Big  bed-bug 103 

Bill  bugs  72 

Blatidas 123 

Blister  beetles 70 

Blue-bottle  flies 97 

Bombardier  beetle 55 

Bombylidje 94 

Bombycidae 85 

Bot  flies 95 

Bruchidge 69 

Bugs 98 

Buffalo  tree-hopper 107 

Burying  beetles 56 

Cabbage  butterfly 80 

Caddice  flies 126 

Calandridaa 72 

Caloptenus  spretus 120 

Canker  worms 88 

Cannibal  beetles 53 

Cantheris 70 

Capsidae 101 


PAGE 

Carpenter  bees 34 

Catocala s7 

Cecidomyidae 92 

Cecropia  moth 85 

Cerambycidae 66 

Cheese  fly 97 

Chalcidae 46 

Chlamy 3 69 

Chrysalides 76 

Cicadidae  106 

Circulatory  system 13 

Classification « 2 

Clavicornia 56 

Cly  tus 68 

Cockroaches 124 

Coccinelidse 57 

Coccididae 109 

Codling  moth 89 

Colias 80 

Coleoptera 24 

Conehead 118 

Copridas 62 

Corimelaenidae Ill 

Corn  worm 87 

Corydalis 128 

Cosinopcera 63 

Crane  flies 93 

Cremaster 81 

Crickets 55 

Croton  bug 124 

Crustacea 2 

Culicidas 92 

Curculionidae 72 

Cursoria 123 

Cyclorapha 91 

Cynipidrc 47 

Danais 81 

Dermestes 58 

Digger  wasp 39 

Dog-day  fly 106 

Doryphora 68 

Dragon  flies 128 

Drosphilidaa 97 

Elateridse 59 

Entomology. 4 

Ephemeridoa 129 

Epicanta 70 

Excrementivora 62 


II 


INDEX. 


PAGE 
External  structure  ...........................      5 

Feather-  wings  ................................    89 

Flea-beetles  ..................................    69 

Fleas  ..........................................    98 

Flies  ..........................................    89 

Formica  .....................................    44 

Fringe-wings  .................................    89 

Fruit  weevils  .................................    72 

Gall  gnats  ...................................    92 

<Jeometrid£e  ..............  .....................    88 

Giant  water-  bug    ............................  105 

Goldsmith  beetle  .............................    65 

Grapevine  leaf-hopper  ..................  -----  107 

Grapevine  phylloxera  ......................  109 

Grapta  ......  .  ................................      82 

Grasshoppers  .................................  118 

Hackberry  butterfly  ..........................    73 

Harlequin  bug  ................................  102 

Hellgrammite  fly  ............................  128 

Hemiptera  ....................................  105 

Herbivora  ....................................    62 

Hesperidae  ....................................    82 

Hessian  fly  ................  ...................    92 

Heterocera  ...................................    77 

Heteromera  ...................................    69 

Hipparchia  ..................................    82 

Honey  bee  ..................................  '.  .    31 

Horn  flies  .....................................    97 

Horn  tails  ....................................     41 

Horse  flies  ____  !  ...............................    93 

House  crickets  ................................  116 

House  flies  ....................................    96 

Humble  bees  ..........................  .  .......    33 

Hymenoptera  ................................    ?6 

Hy  poderma  ...................................    95 

Ichneumon  fly  ................................      6 

Imago  ........................................     4 

Insect   ........................................      3 

Isomera  .......................................    52 

Issoma  .......................................    47 

Jassidae  .......................................  107 

Jigger  .........................................    98 

Katydids  .....................................  117 

Lace-wing  ....................................  127 

Lachnosterna  .................................    64 

Lady-birds  ...................................    57 

Lamellicornia  ...........................    61 

Lampyridae  ...............................  ...    59 

Lancet  flies  .................................    96 

Larva  .............................  4 

Leaf-beetles  ................................    60 

Leaf-chafers  ..............................    63 

Leaf-cutter  bees  .............................    35 

Leaf-  rollers  ..................................    88 

Lebia  grandis  .................................    55 

Lepidoptera  ................................       73 

Lice  ....................................  ...>'.;  Ill 

Lirne-tree  moth  ......   .......................    88 

Locustidae  ..............................  H7 

Longicorns  ...............................    66 

Lucanidae  ..............................  61 

Luna  moth  ............................  gg 

Lycaenidae  ............................  82 

Lygaeidae  ..................................  "  '  107 


Mantidae 


122 


Jdany-banded  Robber  ....................  104 


PAGE 

Maple  worm 87 

Mason  bees 35 

May  beetle 64 

May  flies 129 

Meal  beetle  70 

Mealy  bugs  no 

Melolonthidae 64 

Membracidae 107 

Metamorphosis 4 

Migratory  locusts 113,  us 

Mole  cricket 115 

Moths 83 

Muscular  system 114 

Murgantia  histrionica 102 

Muscidse % 

Myriapoda 2 

Myrmica 44 

Necroph  jridae 57 

Nepidae 104 

Nervous  system 13 

Neuroptera 125 

Neuroptera,  families  of 126 

Noctuidae 87 

Notonectidae 55 

Nut  weevils 72 

Nymphalidae 80 

CEdipoda  121 

CEstridae 95 

Oncideres 68 

Onion  fly  97 

Orange  scale no 

Orthoptera 113 

Orthoptera,  families  of 115 

Orthorapha 91 

Oscinidae 97 

Owlet  moths 87 

Parasitica m 

Parthenogenesis 108 

Papilio  79 

Pea  weevil 69 

Pecticornia 61 

Perlidae *. .  130 

Phaoaeus  carnifex 63 

Phitophaga 66 

Phylloxera 79 

Pigeon  tremex 50 

Pieris so 

Piophilidae 97 

Plagioderma 68 

Plum  curculio 72 

Polyphemus 85 

Potter  wasp  39 

Preying  mantis 122 

Prionus 68 

Pseudoneuroptera 128 

Pupa 4 

Pupipara  97 

Pterophoridae 89 

Pyralidse  89 

Rapacious  Soldier-bug 104 

Reduviadje 103 

Reproductive  organs 12 

Respiration 13 

Rhinoceros  beetle 63 

Rhopalocera 77 

Rhyncophora 71 

Robber-flies .    94 


INDEX. 


Ill 


Rocky  Mountain  locust 118 

Rose  chafer 65 

Rose  slug 48 

Rove  beetles 57 

Saltatoria 115 

Saperda 68 

Saw-flies 48 

Scialidse 128 

Scoly  tidae 72 

Screw-worm  fly 97 

Seventeen-year  cicada 106 

Serricornia 53 

Short-horned  borers 59 

Simulidse 92 

Silphidaa , 56 

Siphonaptera 98 

Slug  caterpillars 86 

Snapping  beetles 59 

Snout  oeetles. .  71 

Snout  moths; 88 

Solitary  bees 34 

Span  worms 88 

Squash  bug 101 

Syrphus  flies 94 

Stone  flies 130 

Tabanidas 93 

Tachina  flies ' 95 


PAGE 

Tenebrio 70 

Tenthredinidae 48 

Terebrantia 45 

Termitidae 130 

Termes 130 

Tettix 121 

Thrips 107 

Tortoise  beetles 68 

Tortricidae 80 

Tree  crickets 116 

Trogidae 113 

True  bugs 100 

Trypetidae 97 

Tumble  bug 63 

Uroceridae 48 

Vanessa.. 72 

Vedalia  cardinalis 58 

Walking  sticks 121 

Wasps 37 

Water  scorpions 104 

Water  striders. 104 

Wheat  midge 92 

White  ants 130 

White  grub 64 

Woolly  apple  louse 109 

Wood  wasps 40 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


JAN  6      '52 


1982 


LIBRARY,  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE,  DAVIS 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

5m-4,'41  (2361s) 


41767 


Murtf  eldt  . 


W»  £  • 


M8 


Outlines 


pf  entomol- 


— 


7 

LIBRARY,  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE,  DAVIS 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


